^jS*  of  muSjfi 


BS    1505.8    .H29    1905 

Harper,  William  Rainey, 

1856-1906 

The  prophetic  element  in  the 


r\1  J  m~.  . 


THE  PROPHETIC  ELEMENT  IN 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

AN  AID  TO  HISTORICAL  STUDY 


FOR  USE  IN  ADVANCED  BIBLE  CLASSES 


WILLIAM  RAINEY  HARPER 

PROFESSOR  OF  SEMITIC  LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURES 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


Constructive  Bible  Studies 
college  series 


CHICAGO 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 

1905 


Copyright  /goj 
By  The  University  of  Chicago 


PREFACE 

This  collection  of  studies  is  a  partial  realization  of  a  larger  plan 
which  includes  the  entire  field  of  prophecy,  its  scope  resembling  that 
of  my  volume,  The  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  (1905).  It 
has  been  found  necessary  to  publish  the  first  part,  with  the  expec- 
tation that  the  second  part  will  follow  within  a  comparatively  short 
time.  These  studies  are  intended  primarily  for  students  in  college 
and  those  in  the  theological  seminary,  but  they  will  not  be  found  too 
technical  for  the  more  intelligent  Bible  classes  in  our  best  Sunday 
schools.  The  plan  rests  upon  two  vital  principles:  (1)  That  the  stu- 
dent, guided  by  the  suggestions  made,  shall  do  his  own  thinking  and 
reach  results  which  at  least  in  a  measure  may  be  called  his  own.  No 
conscious  effort  has  been  put  forth  to  control  the  exact  development  of 
his  thought.  (2)  That  the  student  shall  do  his  work  upon  the  basis  of 
the  Scripture  material;  in  other  words,  that  he  shall  study  the  Bible, 
and  not  merely  read  what  others  have  said  concerning  it. 

At  the  same  time,  the  literature  of  each  subject  discussed  has  been 
presented  in  detail.  Only  that  literature  has  been  included  which 
seems  to  be  most  important  and  is  most  easily  accessible. 

Arrangements  have  already  been  made  for  the  publication  of  this 
material  in  a  more  simple  form  intended  for  students  of  high-school 
grade.  For  a  more  technical  presentation  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
author's  Amos  and Hosea  ("International  Critical  Commentary,"  1905). 

The  Appendixes  present  some  materials  essential  to  an  intelligent 
study  of  the  subject  of  prophecy.  They  have  been  prepared  especially 
for  those  deprived  of  access  to  the  standard  works  on  Hebrew  History 
and  Prophecy. 

I  wish  to  express  my  appreciation  of  the  assistance  rendered  me  by 
my  colleague,  Dr.  John  M.  P.  Smith,  especially  in  the  arrangement  and 
verification  of  the  scriptural  references,  and  in  the  references  to  the 
literature  on  the  various  topics. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.     GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  THE    PROPHETIC    ELEMENT  IN 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

PAGE 

Chapter         I. — Content  and  Classification  of  the  Prophetic  Element         i 
Chapter       II. — Definition   and  Principles  of  the  Prophetic  Element       12 


PART  II.     THE  HISTORY  OF  PROPHECY  THROUGH  HOSEA 

Chapter     III. — Prophecy  and  Prophetism  during  the  Period  of  the 

Patriarchs  and  Judges 25 

Chapter      IV. — Prophecy  and  Prophetism  during  the  Davidic  Period       37 

Chapter       V. — The  Background  of  Prophecy  and  Prophetism  in  the 

Northern  Kingdom 49 

Chapter     VI. — The    Product    of    Prophecy    and    Prophetism    from 

933  to  800  B.  C 73 

Chapter    VII. — The  Prophetic  Message  of  the  Early  Histories        .       82 

Chapter  VIII. — The  Prophetic  Message  of  Amos 98 

Chapter     IX. — The  Prophetic  Message  of  Hosea 112 


APPENDIXES 

A.  A  Table  of  Important  Dates 125 

B.  A  Chronological  Table  of  the  Religious  Life  of  Israel     .      .      .      .  127 

C.  The  Prophetic  Vocabulary 128 

D.  An  Analysis  of   the  Hexateuch 139 


Paet  Fiest 


GENERAL   SCOPE    OF   THE   PROPHETIC   ELEMENT    IN 
THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

I.  Content  and  Classification  of  the  Prophetic  Element. 
II.  Definition  and  Principles  of  the  Prophetic  Element. 


CHAPTER   I. 

CONTENT    AND    CLASSIFICATION    OF    THE    PROPHETIC    ELEMENT. 

§  i.  Preliminary  Inquiry. — The  study  of  prophecy  is  so  largely  a 
study  of  history  that  the  methods  of  historical  study  must  be  adopted. 
This  means,  first  of  all,  the  arrangement  of  the  prophetic  material  in 
chronological  order.  The  basis  of  such  arrangement  must  be  sought 
through  a  preliminary  examination  of  the  authorship,  historical  back- 
ground, occasion,  and  purpose  of  each  book  or  document.  This 
introductory  work  must  be  performed  either  by  or  for  the  student. 
The  difficulty  of  the  task  is,  of  course,  very  great;  its  necessity  is, 
however,  in  no  way  minimized  by  this  difficulty. 

See  on  Hebrew  history:  Ewald,  History  of  Israel,  7  vols.  (1843  ff.,  3d  ed.  1864  ff., 
transl.  1869  ff.);  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel  (1878,  5th  ed. 
1899,  transl.  1885);  Ren  an,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel  (1887-93,  transl.  1888-95); 
KlTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  2  vols.  (1888-92,  transl.  1895);  McCurdv,  History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,  3  vols.  (1895-1901);  Kent,  A  History  of  the  Hebrew 
People,  3  vols.  (1896-99);  Cornill,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel  (1898);  W.  E. 
Barnes,  art.  "History  of  Israel,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,Vo\.\l  (1899) ; 
PATON,  Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (1901);  OTTLEY,  A  Short  History  of  the 
Hebrews  to  the  Roman  Period  (1901) ;  GUTHE,  art.  "  Israel,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol. 
II  (1901);  Wade,  Old  Testament  History  (1901,  2d  ed.  1903);  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Tes- 
tament History  ( 1 903 ). 

Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  2  vols.  (1881-88) ;  Wellhausen,  Israelitische 
und judische  Geschichte  (1894,  5th  ed.  1904);  Kosters,  Het  Herstel  van  Israel  in  het 
Persische  Tijdvak  (1894,  German  transl.  1895) ;  Winckler,  Geschichte  Israels  in  Einzel- 
darstellungen,  2  vols.  (1895-1900);  Ed.  Meyer,  Die  Entstehung  des  fudenthums 
(1896);  Van  Hoonacker,  Nouvelles  itudes  sur  la  restauration  juive  (1896) ;  Guthe, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1899;  2d  ed.  1901);  Piepenbring,  Histoire  du  peuple 
d 'Israel  (1898);  Stade,  Die  Entstehung  des  Volkes  Israel  (1899);  Lohr,  Geschichte 
des  Volkes  Israel  (1900). 

§  2.  Materials  for  such  inquiry  may  be  obtained  (1)  from  each  of 
the  books  or  writings  concerned,  by  an  examination  of  the  diction  and 
style,  of  the  allusions  to  institutions  and  historical  events,  and  of  the 
religious  ideas;  and  also  (2)  from  outside  sources,  among  which  may  be 
included  the  Egyptian,  and  especially  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
monumental  literature. 

See  Schrader,  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  and  the  Old  Testament  (1883,  transl.  in 
2  vols.,  1885-88);  Sayce  (editor),  Records  of  the  Past  (new  series),  Vols.  I-VI  (1889-92); 
Evetts,  New  Light  on  the  Bible  and  the  Holy  Land  {no  date);  Sayce,  The  Higher 

3 


4  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Criticism  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments  (3d  ed.  1894);  McCurdy,  History, 
Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  Vols.  I— III  (1895-1901) ;  Hommel,  The  Ancient  Hebrew 
Tradition  as  Illustrated  by  the  Monuments  (1897);  T.  Nicol,  Recent  Archceology 
and  the  Bible  ("Croall  Lectures"  for  1898);  Morris  Jastrow,  The  Religion  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898);  Ira  M.  Price,  The  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (1899);  C.  J.  Ball,  Light  from  the  East  (1899);  Driver,  "Hebrew  Authority" 
in  Hogarth's  Authority  and  Archceology,  Sacred  and  Profane  (1899),  pp.  1-152; 
Kellner,  The  Assyrian  Monuments  Illustrating  the  Sermons  of  Isaiah  (1900); 
R.  F.  Harper,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature,  Selected  Translations  ("  World's 
Great  Books,"  Aldine  edition,  1901);  Budde,  "The  Old  Testament  and  the  Excava- 
tions," American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  VI  (1902),  pp.  685-708;  T.  G.  Pinches, 
The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  the  Historical  Records  and  Legends  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia  (1902;  2d  ed.  1903);  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  Babel  and  Bible  (1902, 
transl.  by  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  1903);  Sayce,  The  Religions  of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia 
("Gifford  Lectures"  for  1902);  Konig,  The  Bible  and  Babylon  (1902,  transl.  1903); 
HlLPRECHT,  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands  during  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1903); 
G.  A.  Cooke,  A  Text-Book  of  North  Semitic  Inscriptions  (1903);  Kittel,  The  Babylon- 
ian Excavations  and  Early  Bible  History  (1902;  transl.  1903);  W.  St.  Chad  Bos- 
cawen,  The  First  of  Empires  (1903) ;  Breasted,  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt  (1905.) 

Winckler,  Keilinschriftliches  Textbuch  zum  Alten  Testament  (1892,  2d  ed.  1903) ; 
LlDZBARSKl,  Handbuch  der  nordsemitischen  Epigraphik  nebst  ausgewdhlten  Inschriften 
(1898);  Winckler  tjnd  Zimmern,Z>zV  Keilinschriften  und  das  A  lie  Testament  (3d  ed. 
1902);  Lidzbarski,  Ephemeris  fiir  semitische  Epigraphik,  Bd.  I  (1900-1902),  Bd.  II 
(1903?!.);  Oettli,  Der  Kampf  um  Bibel  und  Babel  (1902);  Gunkel,  Israel  und 
Babylonien:  Der  Einfluss  Babyloniens  auf  die  israelitische  Religion  (1903) ;  C.  Bezold, 
Die  babylonisck-assyrischen  Keilinschriften  und  ihre  Bedeutung  fiir  das  Alte  Testa- 
ment (1904);  Alfred  Jeremias,  Das  Alte  Testament  im  Lichte  des  Alten  Orients 
(1904);  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Die  Religion  Babyloniens  und  Assyriens  (transl.  from 
the  English,  and  enlarged  ;  Vol.  I  [1905]). 

§  3.  Certain  Principles  are  accepted  as  guiding  an  inquiry  of  this 
nature.     Among  these  may  be  noted  the  following : 

1.  Evidence  as  to  the  date,  authorship,  origin,  etc.,  of  a  writing, 
based  on  a  study  of  the  language,  style,  historical  allusions,  etc.,  is  of 
the  highest  value,  provided  it  has  been  gathered  in  a  scientific  way. 

2.  Full  recognition  is  to  be  made  of  the  general  method  of  history- 
writing  employed  in  ancient  times  ;  viz.,  compilation. 

3.  The  writer  or  speaker,  in  each  case,  addressed  the  people  of  his 
own  times,  and,  consequently,  shaped  his  material  to  influence  those 
times  primarily. 

4.  The  sacred  narratives  as  such  are  to  be  accounted  neither  poeti- 
cal pieces,  nor  historical  treatises,  nor  scientific  theses ;  but  rather  as 
literature  illustrating  and  intended  to  teach  the  great  principles  of 
the  religious  life. 

5.  Distinction  is  to  be  made  sharply  between  the  record  of  an  event, 
whatever  may  be  the  date  of  the  record,  and  the  event  itself. 


CONTENT    AND    CLASSIFICATION  5 

6.  Distinction  is  also  to  be  made  between  the  original  form  of  an 
utterance,  and  any  later  literary  form  in  which  it  may  have  been 
clothed. 

7.  A  writer  describing  an  event  of  earlier  times  does  not  always 
separate  clearly  the  sympathies  and  antipathies  of  his  own  times  from 
those  of  the  age  to  which  the  event  belongs. 

8.  The  writer  or  compiler  is  influenced  in  his  selection  of  material 
and  in  his  form  of  presentation  by  the  purpose  which  he  has  in  mind. 

§  4.  Certain  Problems  exist,  for  which  some  kind  of  solution  is 
necessary  before  real  progress  can  be  made,  in  the  study  of  the  pro- 
phetic element.     The  more  important  of  these  are  the  following:1 

1.  The  scope  and  character  of  the  work  which  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
Moses. 

2.  The  particular  psalms,  if  any,  which  are  to  be  assigned  to  the 
authorship  of  David. 

3.  The  content,  character,  and  relative  position  of  the  portions  of 
the  Hexateuch  commonly  ascribed  to  the  two  prophetic  narratives 
known  as  J  and  E. 

4.  The  date,  circumstances  of  origin,  and  general  interpretation  of 
the  prophetic  writing  ascribed  to  Joel ;  in  other  words,  the  question 
whether  this  is  the  earliest,  or  one  of  the  latest,  of  the  prophetic 
writings. 

5.  The  origin  and  date  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  whether  in 
early  times,  such  as  those  of  Moses,  or  in  the  days  of  Josiah,  about 
621  B.  C. 

6.  The  origin  and  date  of  chaps.  40-66  of  Isaiah,  whether  they 
come  (a)  from  one  author,  viz.,  the  Isaiah  of  Hezekiah's  times,  or  an 
exilic  prophet;  or  (i>)  from  several  authors,  all  of  whom  lived  in  the 
period  of  the  exile  or  later. 

7.  The  relationship  of  chaps.  40-48  of  Ezekiel  to  the  preceding 
and  following  development  of  the  priestly  idea,  as  seen  in  the  portions 
of  the  Hexateuch  ascribed  to  P. 

8.  The  question  of  insertions  in  earlier  prophets,  especially  Amos, 
Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah,  from  the  hands  of  later  prophets. 

9.  The  date  and  place  of  Zechariah,  chaps.  9-1 1  and  12-14. 

10.  The  relationship  and  the  editorial  union  of  the  various  sources 
of  the  Hexateuch,  known  as  J,  E,  D,  and  P. 

11.  The  origin  and  literary  character  of  the  book  of  Daniel,  in  its 
present  form. 

1  These  problems  will  be  given  further  consideration  in  connection  with  the  various 
periods  to  which  they  belong. 


6  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

12.  The  particular  periods  to  which  the  various  groups  of  psalms, 
as  well  as  many  individual  psalms,  are  to  be  assigned. 

§5.  The  Content  of  Prophetic  Material  is  to  be  understood  as 
including: 

1.  The  important  lives  and  events  of  a  given  period;  for  these, 
entirely  apart  from  the  record  of  them,  constituted  an  influential  factor 
in  the  development  of  Israel's  religious  thought.  Prophecy  of  this 
kind  (e.  g.,  the  life  of  Samuel,  or  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from 
Sennacherib  in  701  B.  C.)  may  be  called  living  prophecy. 

2.  Stories  of  the  past  concerning  great  lives  and  significant  events 
written  down  for  the  encouragement  or  warning  of  Israel  by  one  whose 
purpose  is  prophetic;  for  such  stories  (e.  g.,  those  of  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Samuel,  and  Kings)  were  intended  to  influence  the  life  of  the  people 
in  the  midst  of  whom  the  prophet  worked,  and  to  whom  they  were 
addressed.     Prophecy  of  this  kind  may  be  called  experience  prophecy. 

3.  Descriptions  of  the  present,  in  which  the  writer  depicts  the  sins 
of  the  rulers,  the  corruption  of  the  priests,  and  the  ignorance  of  the 
masses ;  or  expresses  approval  of  the  manifestation  of  a  true  desire  for 
righteousness;  or  names  the  obligations  growing  out  of  the  relation- 
ship sustained  by  Israel  to  Jehovah ;  or  describes  the  punishment 
which  Israel  is  now  suffering  because  of  her  faithlessness;  for  such 
descriptive  utterances  were  intended  to  turn  the  people  away  from 
their  sins  —  a  true  prophetic  purpose,  and  may  properly  be  called 
descriptive  prophecy. 

4.  Predictions  of  the  future,  in  which  the  prophet  foretells  the 
divine  judgment  which  is  soon  to  fall  upon  a  land  full  of  corrup- 
tion and  to  leave  it  a  scene  of  desolation ;  or  the  glorious  future  of  a 
redeemed  Zion,  abounding  in  peace  and  prosperity,  a  future  which 
shall  include  even  the  coming  of  Jehovah  himself,  and  the  renovation 
and  purification  of  the  entire  world;  for,  here  again,  the  sole  purpose 
of  the  utterance  is  to  deter  the  people  or  to  persuade  them  to  come 
nearer  to  Jehovah  and  to  live  lives  more  worthy  of  his  character. 
Such  utterance  is  properly  called  predictive  prophecy. 

§  6.  A  Classification  of  Prophetic  Material  According  to  Historical 
Periods  will  follow  the  usual  divisions  of  Hebrew  history;  viz.,  early 
(down  to  621  B.  C),  middle  (621-444  B.  C),  and  late  (444-161  B.  C). 
The  close  connection  between  history  and  prophecy  not  only  justifies 
but  demands  the  adoption  of  the  same  general  divisions.  The  history 
of  the  Hebrew  nation  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  history  of  thought,  rather 
than  of  life  or  of  action.  Prophecy  is  one  phase  of  that  thought,  and  is 
to  be  understood  only  as  it  stands  in  proper  relation  to  the  other  phases. 


CONTENT    AND    CLASSIFICATION  J 

§  7.  The  Early  Period  of  Hebrew  history  (to  621  B.  C.)  will  include 
the  larger  portion  of  the  prophetic  development ;  for  prophetism  is 
the  earliest  of  the  three  great  factors  entering  into  the  history  of 
Hebrew  thought  (the  others  being  the  priestly  element,  and  the  wisdom 
element).  In  this  early  period  we  find  three  stages  of  prophetic 
growth,  viz.: 

1.  The  patriarchal,  extending  to  the  time  of  Samuel  (1100  B.  C), 
and  including  : 

a)  Institutions  expressive  of  religious  thought,  and  especially  those 
employed  in  connection  with  oracular  consultation. 

b)  The  facts  of  history,  whether  lives  or  events,  from  Abraham  to 
Samuel,  in  so  far  as  they  had  significance  in  connection  with  the 
development  of  Israel's  religious  life,  e.  g.,  the  exodus  from  Egypt. 

c)  The  ancient  traditions,  whatever  they  were,  inherited  by  Israel, 
and  handed  down  from  father  to  son. 

d)  Actual  utterances  by  religious  leaders  of  prophetic  spirit,  which 
may  safely  be  attributed  to  this  period. 

2.  The  Davidic,  extending  from  Samuel  to  Solomon,  and  called 
Davidic  because  David  was  the  central  figure  of  the  great  group, 
Samuel,  Saul,  David,  and  Solomon.  This  period  may  properly  be 
called  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  will  include : 

a)  The  institutions  which  had  their  origin,  or  on  which  special 
emphasis  was  placed,  in  this  period ;  e.  g.,  the  prophetic  schools,  the 
temple. 

b)  The  lives  of  these  men  in  so  far  as  they  influenced  and  insti- 
gated religious  thought,  together  with  the  events  of  national  impor- 
tance connected  with  those  lives ;  e.  g.,  the  founding  of  the  monarchy. 

c)  Old  traditions  concerning  the  patriarchs,  and  new  traditions 
just  forming  concerning  Israel's  earliest  leaders. 

d)  Oral  utterances  of  prophets  of  the  period,  like  Samuel,  Nathan, 
Gad,  and  others,  which  were  handed  down,  due  allowance  being  made 
for  accretions  in  the  transmission. 

e)  Actual  literary  pieces  of  a  prophetic  character  coming  from  this 
period,  whether  in  the  form  of  stories,  addresses,  or  psalms. 

3.  The  prophetic  stage,  so  called  because  during  this  period  prophet- 
ism was  the  most  conspicuous  factor  in  Israelitish  thought.  Here  two 
separate,  yet  closely  connected,  growths  present  themselves : 

a)  The  northern  (933-721  B.  C),  which  includes,  besides  the  insti- 
tutions and  traditions  of  northern  Israel,  the  work  of  Elijah,  Elisha,  and 
Jonah,  who  did  not  write;  also  that  of  Amos  and  Hosea,  who  were  the 


8  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

first  literary  prophets ;  and  the  story-literature  which  took  form  at 
this  time,  including  the  E-narrative. 

b)  The  southern  (760-630  B.  C),  which  includes,  besides  the  insti- 
tutions and  traditions  of  southern  Israel,  the  prophetic  narrative 
J;  the  literary  work  of  Isaiah,  Micah,  and  Zephaniah ;  and  the  story- 
literature  which  took  form  at  this  time. 

§8.  The  Middle  Period  (621-444  B.  C.)  finds  prophecy  at  its  highest 
point  and  carries  it  in  its  decay  through  three  stages : 

1.  Pre-exilic,  or  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  and  his  contemporaries 
(640-586  B.  C).  Here  are  assigned,  in  particular,  (a)  the  legal  and 
story-literature  found  in  Deuteronomy  and  the  earlier  portions  of  Kings; 
(6)  the  utterances  of  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Jeremiah,  and  the  earlier 
sermons  of  Ezekiel ;  and  {c)  such  prophetic  psalms  as  may  be  so 
treated. 

2.  Exilic,  or  the  prophecy  of  the  captivity  (586-538  B.  C).  Here 
belong  (a)  the  significance  of  such  lives  as  Jeremiah's,  and  such  events 
as  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  (6)  the  later  sermons  of  Ezekiel,  the 
utterances  of  Obadiah,  portions  of  the  collection  found  in  Isaiah,  chaps. 
40-66,  and  (c)  some  psalms. 

3.  Post-exilic,  or  the  prophecy  of  the  Restoration  (538-444  B.  C). 
Here  belong  the  sermons  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  (chaps.  1-8),  the 
book  of  Malachi,  additions  to  earlier  prophecies,  and  many  psalms, 
although  most  of  these  are  priestly  in  their  tone. 

§9.  The  Late  Period  brings  prophecy  to  its  end  (444-160  B.  C), 
and  includes  only  the  last  and  dying  words  of  prophecy,  which  really 
have  more  of  the  character  of  apocalypse  than  of  true  prophecy.  Here 
belong  the  book  of  Joel,  the  material  of  Zechariah,  chaps.  9-1 1, 
12-14,  the  story  of  Jonah,  later  additions  to  the  earlier  prophets,  and, 
in  its  present  form,  the  story  of  Daniel.  The  psalms  of  this  period  are 
almost  wholly  priestly. 

§10.  The  Work  of  the  Prophet,  viewed  externally  in  distinction 
from  the  inner  thought  of  prophecy,  deserves  careful  study,  since  much 
depends  upon  the  immediate  environment  which  conditioned  the  pro- 
phetic thought.  Each  historical  period  makes  a  special  contribution 
to  this  subject.    The  principal  heads  of  classification  are  the  following  : 

1.  The  private  life  of  the  prophet,  including  his  parentage,  home, 
education,  occupation,  and  social  position. 

2.  The  political  activity  of  the  prophet,  including  his  attitude  toward 
the  home  government,  his  policy  in  relation  to  foreign  nations,  the 
new  measures  which  he  proposes,  and  his  general  political  point  of  view. 


CONTENT    AND    CLASSIFICATION 


9 


3.  The  pastoral  activity  of  the  prophet,  in  its  various  forms  of 
preaching,  of  individual  work,  teaching  in  schools,  charitable  work, 
etc. 

4.  The  literary  activity  of  the  prophet,  including  story-writing,  its 
methods  and  characteristics;  sermon-writing;  editorial  revision  of 
earlier  writings;  general  literary  form. 

5.  The  prophetic  reception  of  the  divine  message,  as  by  forms  of 
sorcery  and  divination,  the  use  of  external  agencies  such  as  music,  the 
use  of  the  lot,  the  urim  and  thummim,  dreams,  visions  or  ecstatic 
trances,  and  spiritual  enlightenment. 

6.  The  prophetic  proclamation  of  the  divine  message,  by  tongue  and 
pen,  through  symbols  and  symbolic  actions,  by  the  use  of  literary 
skill,  and  by  the  employment  of  oratorical  methods. 

§11.  The  Principal  Ideas  of  prophetism,  as  they  were  presented 
from  period  to  period,  form  a  definite  body  of  teaching,  including 
many  subjects.    These  subjects  may  be  roughly  classified  as  follows  : 

1 .  As  relating  to  God  and  the  supernatural  world: 

a)  The  idea  of  God,  his  personality,  his  names,  and  his  self- 
manifestations. 

b)  The  various  attributes  of  God. 

c)  God  in  creation  and  in  history. 
d)  Angels,  cherubim,  seraphim. 

e)  Evil  spirits  ;  sorcery,  witchcraft,  etc. 

2.  As  relating  to  man: 

a)  The  origin  of  man,  his  nature,  dignity,  destiny. 
l>)  The  origin  and  nature  of  sin  and  guilt. 
c)  Atonement  for  sin. 
d)  Death  and  the  future  world. 

3.  As  relating  to  the  future  of  Israel: 

a)  The  coming  of  Jehovah;  the  day  of  Jehovah. 

b)  The  holy  land  in  which  Israel  will  dwell. 

c)  The  future  destruction  of  the  "nations." 

d)  The  new  covenant,  individual  instead  of  national. 

e)  The  royal  order  and  the  messianic  king. 

/)  The  place  of  prophetism  in  the  new  regime. 
g)  The  place  of  the  church  in  the  new  regime. 
h)  The  suffering  servant ;  the  vicarious  idea. 

4.  As  relating  to  ethical  standards  and  worship: 

a)  Morality  and  standards  of  morality  for  individual  and  nation. 

b)  Righteousness  and  faith. 


10  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

c)  A  covenant  relationship  between  God  and  man. 

d)  Attitude  toward  worship  and  forms  of  worship. 

§12.  The  Various  Schools  of  Interpretation  may  be  arranged  in 
three  groups : 

i.  The  rationalistic  school  denies  the  existence  in  Hebrew  prophet- 
ism  of  any  element  or  factor  not  found  in  the  history  of  other  nations. 
The  visions  of  the  prophets  are  only  the  aspiration  and  imaginings  of  a 
school  of  poets;  their  predictions  have  not  been  fulfilled,  and  their 
fulfilment  need  not  be  expected. 

2.  The  predictive  school  lays  greatest  emphasis  on  the  predictive  ele- 
ment in  prophecy,  other  elements  being  largely  ignored.  This  school 
has  two  divisions: 

a)  The  literal  interpreters,  who  understand  that  the  prophetic  pre- 
dictions will  be  fulfilled  in  their  literal  meaning. 

b)  The  spiritual  interpreters,  who  maintain  the  fulfilment  of  the 
spirit,  not  the  letter  of  the  predictions. 

3.  The  historical  school  assigns  to  prediction  a  less  important  place, 
and  emphasizes  the  historical  element  in  prophecy,  and  the  ethical 
character  of  the  prophet's  work  in  and  for  his  own  times.  Here  again 
two  divisions  exist: 

a)  The  conditional  interpreter  of  the  predictive  element  teaches 
that  the  various  predictions  are  conditioned  rather  than  absolute,  and 
consequently  capable  of  fulfilment  only  in  case  of  the  realization  of  the 
condition  expressed  or  implied. 

b)  The  idealistic  interpreter  understands  that  the  predictions  were 
ideal  representations  based  upon  a  high  conception  of  God;  and  that 
these  representations  have  been  gradually  realized  as  these  higher 
ideas  of  God  have  been  accepted. 

§  13.    Books  on  Prophecy.2 

Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology,  2  vols.  (1868,  5th  ed.  1896,  transl.  1892); 
Kuenen,  The  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel  (1875,  transl.  1877);  W.  R.  Smith, 
The  Prophets  of  Israel  (1882,  new  ed.  1895);  Orelli,  Old  Testament  Prophecy  (1882, 
transl.  1885);  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy  (1886) ;  Piepenbring,  The  Theology  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1886,  transl.  1893);  Kirkpatrick,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets 
(1892) ;  Montefiore,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ("Hibbert  Lectures"  for  1892) ; 
Cornill,  The  Prophets  of  Israel  (1894,  transl.  3d  ed.  1898);  McCurdy,  History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,  3  vols.  (1894-1901);  F.  H.  Woods,  The  Hope  of  Israel 
(1896);  G.  A.  Smith,  The  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets,  2  vols.  (Expositor's  Bible, 
1896-98);  Riehm,  Messianic  Prophecy  (3d  ed.  1900);  G.  S.  Goodspeed,  Israels 
Messianic  Hope   (1900);     Davidson,   art.   "Prophecy   and    Prophets,"   Hastings's 

"This  list  is  intended  to  include  only  the  most  important  books  on  the  subject  of 
prophecy. 


CONTENT    AND    CLASSIFICATION  I  I 

Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV  (1902);  Cheyne,  Guthe,  and  Volz,  art.  "Prophetic 
Literature,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  Ill  (1902);  A.  B.  Davidson,  Old  Testament 
Prophecy  (1904);  L.  W.  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet  (1905). 

Duhm,  Die  Theologie  der  Propheten  (1875);  Bruston,  Histoire  critique  de  la 
litteralure  prophetique  (1881);  K.ONIG,  Der  Offenbarungsbegriff  des  Alten  Testaments, 
2  vols.  (1882) ;  Maybaum,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthums (1883); 
LoTZ,  Geschichte  und  Offenbarung  itn  Alten  Testament  (1891) ;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der 
alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (1893,  2d  ed.  1899);  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israeli- 
tischen Religion  (3d  ed.  1897);  VoLZ,  Die  vorexilische  Jahweprophetie  und  der 
Messias  (1897);  Giesebrecht,  Die  Berufsbegabung  der  alttestamentlichen  Propheten 
(1897);  Kittel,  Profetie  und  Weissagung  (1899);  Konig,  Das  Berufsbewusstsein 
der  alttestamentlichen  Propheten  (1900);  Kraetzschmar,  Prophet  und  Seher  im 
alten  Israel  (1901);  Koberle,  Siinde  und  Gnade  itn  religibsen  Leben  des  Volkes 
Israel  bis  au/  Christum  (1905) ;  Stade,  Biblische  Theologie  des  Alten  Testaments,  Vol.  I 
(1905). 


CHAPTER  II. 

DEFINITION    AND    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    PROPHETIC    ELEMENT. 

§14.  The  Word  "Prophet"  and  the  Hebrew  word  of  which  it  is  a 
translation  require  consideration. 

1.  Dots  pro  in  "pro-phet"  mean  "before"  or  "for"?  What  is  the 
meaning  of  the  Greek  word  phe-mi  from  which  the  second  syllable  of 
"prophet"  is  derived? 

2.  Compare  with  this  the  word  "pre-diction,"  which  is  of  Latin 
origin,  and  note  the  difference. 

3.  Consider  the  meanings  assigned  the  Hebrew  root  na-bha\  from 
which  nd-bhV,  "prophet,"  comes;  does  it  mean  (a)  "to  bubble  forth," 
the  prophet  being  thus  represented  as  one  through  whom  prophecy 
bubbles  forth,  as  the  spring  bubbles  forth  from  the  earth?  or  {b)  simply 
"to  speak"  {cf  the  Assyrian  root,  which  means  "to  call,  name"),  the 
prophet  being  thus  simply  a  spokesman?  or  (V)  "to  carry  off  by  force" 
{cf.  Assyrian  root),  thus  representing  the  prophet  as  an  involuntary 
speaker,  carried  away  by  a  supernatural  power,  as  in  an  ecstatic 
vision  ?  or  (d)  is  the  word  prophet  a  denominative  meaning  "one  con- 
trolled by  the  god  Nebo"  ? 

4.  Note  the  meaning  of  the  word  "prophecy"  as  used  of  Saul  and 
others  in  1  Sam.  10:5,6,  10,  13;  18:10;  19:20-24;  its  use  with  music, 
the  frenzy  implied,  the  violence  indicated;  also  the  characterization  of 
Elisha  by  Jehu's  servants  as  "mad  fellow,"  2  Kings  9:11;  and 
consider  the  relation  between  prophecy  and  insanity  in  their  outward 
manifestation. 

5.  Consider  the  note  in  1  Sam.  9:9  which  refers  to  the  introduction 
of  the  word  "prophet"  as  a  substitute  for  an  earlier  word  "seer." 

6.  Note  also  that  the  word  is  used  of  an  official  class,  characterized 
as  "false  prophets;"  cf.  especially  Deut.  13:1-6;  18:20-22,  and  many 
places;  e.g.,  Isa.  28:7;  Jer.  2:26;  4:9. 

7.  Decide  in  what  sense  Amos's  denial  (7: 14)  that  he  is  a  prophet 
or  the  son  of  a  prophet  is  to  be  taken. 

8.  Consider  the  discredited  position  of  the  "prophet"  in  the  days  of 
Zechariah,  as  indicated  in  Zech.  13:2-6. 

9.  Note,  on  the  other  hand,  the  meaning  of  "prophet"  called  for  in 
the  statement  (Exod.  7: 1)  that  Aaron  is  to  be  a  prophet  to  Moses  {cf. 
Jer.  15:19)- 


DEFINITION    AND    PRINCIPLES 


13 


See  the  commentaries  on  1  Sam.  9:9,  especially  those  of  H.  P.  Smith  (1899), 
Nowack  (1901),  Budde  (1902),  Kennedy  (1905),  and  Thenius-Lohr  (1898);  and 
the  Hebrew  dictionaries,  viz.,  Brown  Driver-Briggs  (1891  ff.),  Gesenius-Buhl 
(14th  ed.,  1905),  and  Siegfried-Stade  (1893). 

See  also  REDSLOB,  Der  Begriff  des  Nabi  (1839);  Ewald,  Commentary  on  the 
Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  Vol.  I,  pp.  8  f.;  HUPFELD,  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Kunde 
des  Morgenlandes,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  40;  Delitzsch,  Assyrisches  Handwbrterbuch,  p.  44 1; 
Kuenen,  The  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,  pp.  42  ff.;  Hoffmann,  Zeitschrift  fiir 
die  alttestameniliche  IVissenschaft,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  87  ff.;  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel 
(2d  ed.),  pp.  390  f.;  Oehler,  Old  Testament  Theology,  pp.  363  ff.;  Maybaum,  Die 
Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthums,  p.  1 13;  Fleischer  in  Delitzsch's 
Genesis  (4th  ed.),  p.  552;  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  264  ff.; 
Wellhausen,  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  (3d  ed.)  p.  242;  Orelli,  Old  Testament 
Prophecy,  pp.  II  f.;  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy,  pp.  14  ff.;  Konig,  Der  Offen- 
barungsbegriff  des  Alien  Testaments,  Vol.  I,  pp.  73  ff.;  Giesebrecht,  Die  Berufs- 
begabung  der  alttestamentlichen  Propheten  (1897);  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestament- 
lichen  Religionsgeschichte  (2d  ed.,  1899),  p.  80;  Kittel,  Prophetie  and  Weissagung 
(1899);  K.ONIG,  Das  Berufsbewusstsein  der  alttestamentlichen  Propheten  (1900); 
Kraetzschmar,  Prophet  und  Seher  itn  alien  Israel  (1901);  A.  B.  Davidson  in 
Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  108  f.;  Cheyne,  Encyclopedia  Biblica, 
cols.  3853  f.;  Bewer,  American  fournal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol. 
XVIII  (1902),  p.  120;  W.  R.  Harper,  Amos  and  Hosea  (International  Critical  Com- 
mentary, 1905),  p.  4;  H.  P.  Sunn,  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XXIV, 
pp.  27  f.;  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet,  pp.  317,  344;  and  Holzinger  (1898), 
Gunkel  (1901),  and   Driver  (1904)  on  Gen.  20:7. 

§15.  The  Words  for  "Seer"  and  "Vision"  also  occupy  an  important 
place  in  prophecy. 

1.  Note  the  use  of  ro-'eh  in  Isa.  30:10;  1  Sam.  9:9  ff.;  2  Chron. 
16:7,  10. 

2.  Note  the  use  of  ho-zeh  in  Am.  7:12;  Isa.  30:10;  Mic.  3:7; 
2  Chron.  33: 18;  2  Sam.  24: 1 1;  2  Chron.  9:29;  29:30. 

3.  Note  the  use  of  "vision"  in  Isa.  21:2;  29:11;  28: 18;  Joel  3: 1 ; 
Job  4:13;  7:14;  2  Sam.  7:17;  Zech.  13:4. 

4.  Consider  again  1  Sam.  9:9,  and  explain  the  significance  of  this 
change;  when  and  why  did  the  new  word  come  in? 

5.  Observe  that  these  words  originally  marked  the  method  of 
receiving  the  divine  communication,  it  being  seen  in  a  vision,  that  is, 
an  ecstacy  or  trance  (Dan.  8:13,  17,  26),  or  a  dream  (Isa.  29:7);  but  in 
time  they  came  to  designate  the  utterance  or  writing  of  the  message,  as 
in  Jer.  23: 16;  Hab.  2:2;  Hos.  12:11;  Nah.  1:1;  Isa.  1:1. 

See  on  visions  and  similar  phenomena:  Oehler,  Ueber  das  Verhdltniss  der 
alttestamentlichen  Prophetie  zur  heidnischen  Mantik  (1861);  Baur,  Der  Prophet  Amos, 
p.  400;  Duhm,  Die  Theologie  der  Propheten,  pp.  86  ff.;  Oehler,  Theology  of  the  Old 
Testament, §^207 ,  209;  Kuenen,  The  Prophets  and Prophecy  in  Israel,^.  76-85;  Konig, 
Der  Offenbarungsbe griff  des  alien  Testamentes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  8-60;  Maybaum,  Die  Ent- 


14  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

wickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthums,  pp.  1-6;  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy,  pp. 
6-IO;  Riehm,  Alttestamentliche  Theologie,  pp.  20  ff.,  212  ff.;  Schultz,  Old  Testament 
Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  250  ff.,  275-79,  281  ff.;  Orelli,  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  4  ff.; 
Meinhold,  Prophetie  und  Schwdrmerei  (1892);  Gunkel,  Schbpfung  und  Chaos,  pp. 
323-27;  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  2i9"ff.,  421;  Borchert,  "Die  Visionen  der 
Propheten,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken  (1895),  pp.  217  ft.;  Dillmann,  Alt- 
testamentliche Theologie,  pp.  477  ff .,  494 ;  Schwartzkopff,  Die  prophetische  Offenbarung 
(1896);  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (2d  ed.),  pp.  82  ff.; 
GlESEBRECHT,  Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen  Propheten,pp.  38-72;  DRIVER, 
Joel  and  Amos,  pp.  200  ff.,  cf.  p.  126;  Macdonald,  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  Vol.  XX  (1899),  pp.  89  ff.,  96,  109  f.,  117;  Morgan,  arts.  "Trance"  and 
"Vision,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV;  Volz  AND  Cheyne,  art. 
"Prophetic  Literature,"  (§§  19,  20),  Encyclopedia  Biblica. 

§16.  The  Prophetic  Vocabulary  contains  also  other  words  deserving 
special  study,  among  which  are : 

1.  The  word  ne'utn,  translated  "saith"  in  Ps.  110:1;  this  would  be 
better  rendered  "utterance,"  "oracle"  {cf.  also  in  Ps.  36:1;  Prov. 
30  : 1),  and  really  means  "whispering,"  "murmuring ;  "  it  is  used  espe- 
cially with  divine  names,  e.  g.,  Gen.  22:16;  Isa.  14:22!.;  30:1; 
31:9;  Hos.  2:15;  n:  n;  Am.  3:13;  4:5;  6:8;  8:35  Ezek- 
13:6;  16  :  58  ;  Jer.  2  :  22  ;  46  :  18  ;  49  :  5  ;  Nah.  2:14;  Zech.  13:2; 
but  also  with  the  name  of  a  prophet  in  an  ecstatic  state,  cf.  Numb. 

24:3,  J5;    2  Sam-  23:1- 

2.  The  word  masse? ,  translated  " burden,"  "utterance,"  "oracle." 

(a)  Note  the  use  of  the  verb  (="liftup")  in  Numb.  23  :  7  ;  Mic.  2:44; 
Isa.  14:  4,  when  the  reference  is  to  some  formal  or  solemn  utterance. 
{b)  Examine  the  word  in  Isa.  13:  1;  14:28;  15:1;  2  Kings  9  :  25  ; 
Hab.  1:1.  (c)  Note,  however,  that  in  Jer.  23 :  33,  34,  36,  38  the  use  of 
this  word  is  strictly  prohibited. 

3.  The  use  of  "word"  (Heb.  dabhar)  is  also  to  be  noticed  as  a 
technical  one,  designating  the  utterance  of  the  prophet,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  "law"  {tordh)  of  the  priest,  and  the  "counsel"  of 
the  sage  {cf  Jer.  18:18). 

4.  The  phrase  "And  Jehovah  (or  God)  said,"  or  "Thus  said 
Jehovah,"  is  frequently  used  to  designate  a  prophetic  utterance  {cf. 
Am.  1:3,  6,  9,  11,  13;  2:  1,  4,  6;  5:4;  Hos.  3:1;  Isa.  8:1;  37  =  33; 
43:  1  ;  Jer.  3:  n;  11:6;  13:1;  Ezek.  6:11;  8:5;  30:13;  Zech. 
8:9;  11:15.  Concerning  this  phrase,  it  may  be  noted  {a)  that  it 
does  not  indicate  the  method  of  speech  employed  by  the  Deity,  since  it 
is  used  of  all  the  methods  of  divine  communication;  {b)  that. in 
many  cases  it  designates  the  prompting  of  the  heart,  the  voice  of 
conscience,    and   consequently    is    used  by   the    false  prophet    (Jer. 


DEFINITION    AND    PRINCIPLES 


15 


28  :  2  ft.;  1  Kings  22  :  11)  who,  perhaps,  really  thinks  that  he  is  utter- 
ing the  "  word  of  God,"  and  also  of  ideas  which  later  experience  shows 
God  would  not  indorse  ;  cf.  the  lying  spirit  placed  by  God  in  the 
mouths  of  the  prophets  (1  Kings  22:19-23);  (c)  that  time  was 
required  to  sift  the  alleged  "sayings  of  God,"  and  to  determine 
whether,  after  all,  they  bore  the  divine  stamp;  observe  the  provision 
made  for  this  in  Deut.  18  :  22  f. 

See  especially  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy,  pp.  12-22;  Orelli,  Old  Testa- 
ment Prophecy,  pp.  5-13;  GlESEBRECHT,  Die  Berufsbegabung  det  alttestamentlichen 
Propheten;  Konig,  Das  Berufsbewusstsein  der  alttestamentlichen  Propheten;  VOLZ, 
art.  "Prophetic  Literature"  (§§  14 f.),  Encyclopaedia  Biblica. 

§17.    Definitions  of  Prophecy. 

1.  The  Rationalistic  School  of  interpretation  excludes  from  prophecy 
everything  that  points  to  guidance  by  a  higher  power,  and  then  reduces 
it  to  the  level  of  ordinary  human  composition.  Prophecy,  from  this 
point  of  view,  may  be  defined  as  a  system  of  thought  (a)  intended  to 
lift  the  people  to  an  ethical  conception  of  the  Deity;  (6)  advocated 
by  men  of  various  degrees  of  moral  and  intellectual  attainment,  some 
of  whom  were  fanatics,  others  men  of  great  spiritual  endowment;  (c) 
including  coarse  and  extravagant  pictures  of  the  people's  sins,  and 
varied  by  prognostications  of  the  future  which  were  more  likely  to 
prove  false  than  true. 

Here  may  be  classified  such  works  as  Spinoza,  Tractalus  theologico-politicus 
(1670),  chaps,  i-iii ;  Hitzig,  Vorlesungen  iiber  biblische  Theologie  und  messianische 
Weissagungen  des  Alten  Testaments  (1880) ;  Renan,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel; 
and,  with  some  reservation,  Kuenen,  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel. 

2.  The  Predictive  School  of  interpreters,  on  the  other  hand,  ignores 
very  largely  any  relationship  between  prophecy  and  history,  treats 
prediction  as  the  most  important  factor  in  prophecy,  and  demands  an 
exact  fulfilment  in  letter  or  spirit  of  every  predicted  utterance.  From 
this  point  of  view,  prophecy  may  be  defined  as  the  foretelling,  by 
information  granted  directly  through  revelation,  of  occurrences  which 
were  contingent,  and  which,  therefore,  were  not  to  be  foreknown  by 
human  wisdom. 

To  this  school  belong,  for  example  :  Hengstenberg,  Christology  of  the  Old 
Testament  (1872-75);  R.  Payne  Smith,  Prophecy  a  Preparation  for  Christ  (1871); 
Gloag,  The  Messianic  Prophecies  (1879) ;  Pember,  The  Great  Prophecies  concerning 
the  Gentiles,  the  fetus,  and  the  Church  of  God  (1881);  Stanley  Leathes,  Old  Testa- 
ment Prophecy;  Its  Witness  as  a  Record  of  Divine  Foreknowledge  (1880) ;  Thomas 
Newton,  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies  Which  Have  Remarkably  Been  Fulfilled, 
etc.  (1883) ;  W.  H.  Green,  Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1883). 


1 6  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

3.  The  Historical  School  of  interpretation  places  great  emphasis 
upon  the  historical  connections  of  prophetic  utterances,  relegates  pre- 
diction to  a  less  prominent  position  than  is  given  it  by  the  Predictive 
School,  and  endeavors  to  trace  through  the  centuries  the  beginnings, 
the  growth  and  climax,  and  the  decay  and  death  of  this  movement  of 
Israelitish  thought.  From  this  point  of  view,  prophecy  may  be  defined 
as  a  special  form  of  religious  instruction,  in  which  effort  is  made  to 
illustrate  and  to  formulate  the  principles  in  accordance  with  which  the 
Ruler  of  the  universe  conducts  his  government  of  nations  and  of  indi- 
viduals. 

As  representative  of  this  school,  which  is  now  dominant,  may  be  cited :  W. 
Robertson  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel;  Cornill,  Prophets  of  Israel;  Kirkpatrick, 
Doctrine  of  the  Prophets;  RlEHM,  Messianic  Prophecy;  SMEND,  Lehrbuch  der  alttesta- 
mentlichen  Religionsgeschichte;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion ;  Monte- 
fiore,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews;  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet. 

§  18.  History  in  its  Relation  to  Prophecy. —  Three  points  deserve 
attention: 

1.  A  knowledge  of  Israelitish  history  is  necessary  for  any  proper 
understanding  of  Old  Testament  prophecy;  still  further,  there  is 
needed  an  acquaintance  also  with  that  wider  Semitic  history  of  which 
Israelitish  history  is  only  a  part.  This  becomes  evident  in  the  study 
of  such  a  prophet  as  Isaiah,  whose  voice  was  heard  on  all  the  great 
political  issues  at  a  time  when  Israel's  interests  were  closely  interwoven 
with  those  of  Egypt  and  Assyria. 

2.  The  history  of  a  period  is  fundamental  to  the  prophecy  of  that 
period,  since  the  history  lies  back  of  the  prophecy  and  supports  it. 
Even  more,  the  history  occasions  the  prophecy;  the  historical  event 
furnishes  the  situation  which  prophecy  undertakes  to  interpret.  Con- 
sider from  this  point  of  view  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  uttered  in  con- 
nection with  the  embassy  of  Merodach-Baladan  to  Hezekiah  (chap.  39). 

3.  If  prophecy  has  in  it  a  divine  element,  then  history  has  the 
same.  If  history  is  human  —  that  is,  determined  by  the  will  of  man, 
characterized  by  the  limitations  of  human  weakness — so  is  prophecy. 
The  prophet  conveys  a  true  conception  of  God's  will,  but  he  is  limited 
in  his  work  by  the  character  of  the  language  which  he  employs,  by 
the  ignorance  and  wilfulness  of  the  people  whom  he  addresses,  and  by 
the  weakness  inherent  in  his  own  humanity,  and  inseparable  from  the 
situation  in  which  he  does  his  work. 

§  19.    The  Time,  Form,  and  Substance  of  Prophecy  are  conditioned : 

1.  The  time  of  the  utterance  of  a  given  prophecy  was  determined  by 

the  time  of  the  occurrence  of  the  event  or  experience  which  gave  rise 


DEFINITION    AND    PRINCIPLES  I  7 

to  the  prophecy.  If  the  event  or  experience  had  been  postponed,  the 
preaching  of  the  particular  truth  taught  by  the  event  would  have  been 
postponed.  Each  truth  was  appropriately  made  known  at  a  particular 
time  in  the  history  which,  as  it  proceeded,  furnished  a  basis  for  the 
announcement  of  that  truth.  Every  crisis  signified  the  promulgation  of 
some  new  truth  ;  e.  g.,  Isa'iah's  doctrine  of  the  inviolability  of  Jerusalem 
was  announced  in  connection  with  Sennacherib's  attempt  upon  the  city. 

2.  The  form  of  the  prophetic  utterance  was  also  determined  by 
the  historical  event  out  of  which  it  grew.  The  same  truth  takes  on 
varying  forms  in  different  periods.  The  form  in  every  case  finds  its 
explanation  in  the  particular  circumstances  with  which  it  stood  closely 
related.  Consider,  for  example,  the  apocalyptic,  enigmatical  character 
of  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  in  the  light  of  the  tyrannical  oppression 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  in  whose  reign  it  was  written. 

3.  The  very  substance  of  prophecy  was  dependent  upon  and  deter- 
mined by  the  historical  event.  Amos  preaches  destruction  in  view  of 
an  approaching  Assyrian  invasion.  Isaiah  announces  the  doctrine  of 
the  remnant  when  Jerusalem's  existence  is  threatened.  The  doctrine 
of  individualism  appears  at  the  very  moment  when  national  existence 
is  about  to  perish.  When  loyal  Israel  is  languishing  in  captivity,  the 
reproach  and  sport  of  her  enemies,  the  doctrine  of  a  suffering  servant 
is  presented.  At  this  time,  too,  arguments  for  the  oneness  of  God 
are  urged  more  earnestly  than  before.  At  the  time  of  the  restoration, 
prophecy  concerns  itself  with  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.  The 
substance  of  prophecy  cannot,  in  any  case,  be  separated  from  the  his- 
tory of  the  prophetic  people. 

§  20.  Prophecy's  Relation  to  the  Nation's  Past,  Present,  and  Future. — 
Prophecy  had  to  do  with  all  three  spheres  of  time : 

1.  With  the  past,  when  the  speaker  presents  for  the  encouragement 
or  the  warning  of  his  countrymen  the  record  of  God's  dealings  in  for- 
mer times  with  the  nation  and  with  individuals  —  stories  of  the  nation's 
apostasy  and  consequent  slavery;  of  a  king's  crime  and  the  punish- 
ment which  followed;  of  a  royal  prayer  and  a  miraculous  deliverance; 
of  a  prophetic  mission  and  a  city  turned  from  sin,  such  as  are  found 
throughout  Genesis,  Exodus,  Samuel,  and  Kings. 

2.  With  the  present,  when  the  prophet  describes  the  wickedness  and 
iniquity  which  he  sees  on  every  side  and  rebukes  it;  or  observes  a 
true  desire  for  righteousness  and  approves  it — pictures  of  the  corrup- 
tion and  debauchery  existing  among  the  ruling  classes ;  of  extortion 
and  oppression  practiced  upon  the  poor;  of  faithlessness  and  skepti- 


1 8  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

cism  toward  the  nation's  God  Jehovah ;  of  peace  and  prosperity  the 
result  of  obedience,  such  as  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  space  of 
written  prophecy.  See,  for  example,  Am.  3:9-15;  5:4-12;  Hos. 
4:1-19;  Zeph.  2:1—3:7;  Jer.  3:21—4:5. 

3.  With  the  future,  when  the  prophet,  acquainted  with  the  laws 
in  accordance  with  which  the  divine  will  acts,  and  knowing  therefore 
that  which  must  follow  this  or  that  line  of  conduct,  directs  his  thoughts 
to  the  glorious  future,  with  all  its  splendid  prospects  for  the  nation 
and  its  ideal  government;  or  in  tones  of  thunder  depicts  the  divine 
judgment  which  must  inevitably  fall  upon  a  land  so  full  of  corruption 
and  idolatry,  and  leave  it  a  scene  of  desolation.  Cf.  Isa.,  chap.  28 ; 
Am.  9:11-15;  Ezek.,  chaps.  6,  7. 

§21.  Prediction  occupies  a  large  and  important  place  in  prophecy, 
and  may  be  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of — 

1.  Its  immediate  purpose,  viz.,  to  influence  the  minds  of  the  people 
directly  addressed.  Here  it  is  important  to  observe  (a)  that  every  pre- 
diction grew  out  of  two  factors :  one,  the  historical  situation  ;  the 
other,  the  body  of  principles  received  and  applied  by  the  prophets; 

(b)  that  prediction  in  almost  every  case  was  general  rather  than  specific ; 

(c)  that  general  predictions  were  frequently  applied  specifically  by  New 
Testament  writers,  e.g.,  Isa.  9:1,  2;  cf.  Matt.  4:14  ff.;  Isa.  29:13;  cf. 
Matt.  15:8  f. 

2.  Its  conditional  character.  Study  Jer.  18:  1-10  and  note:  (a)  When 
the  prediction  contained  a  threat,  and  the  people  for  this  reason  gave 
heed  to  the  words  of  the  threat,  the  calamity  threatened  did  not  fall ; 
in  other  words,  the  prediction  remained  unfulfilled  ;  and  (6)  when 
the  prediction  took  the  form  of  a  promise,  and  the  people  gave  no 
heed  to  the  words  of  the  prophet  uttering  the  promise,  the  thing 
promised  was  not  given ;  in  other  words,  the  prediction  was  unful- 
filled. The  predictions  of  the  prophet  who  was  able  by  his  preaching 
to  turn  the  people  from  their  sins  were  not  fulfilled,  the  prophet's  suc- 
cess rendering  the  fulfilment  unnecessary;  while  on  the  other  hand, 
the  predictions  of  disaster  made  by  a  prophet  who  had  failed  to  reach 
the  hearts  of  the  people  were  the  predictions  which  received  fulfil- 
ment. 

3.  Its  more  distant  purpose,  as  shown  by  time,  the  New  Testament 
writers,  and  human  experience.  This  distant  purpose  (a)  rested  upon 
the  fact  that  the  prophets'  words  were  based  upon  principles  true  for 
all  time,  and  therefore  capable  of  application  to  every  situation  which 
corresponded  in  general  to  the  situation   for  which  the  words  were 


DEFINITION    AND    PRINCIPLES  I9 

originally  intended  ;  (b)  presupposes  the  introductory  and  preparatory 
character  of  the  history  in  connection  with  which  the  utterances  were 
made ;  (c)  is  to  be  closely  connected  in  every  case  with  the  immediate 
purpose  ;  (d)  is  to  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  in  many 
cases  the  prophets  were  setting  forth  lofty  and  inspiring  ideals  in 
highly  poetic  and  figurative  language,  the  exact  realization  of  which  in 
every  detail  is  not  to  be  expected  ;  see,  e.  g.,  Isa.  2 :  2-4 ;  1 1 : 6-9  ;  Zech. 
14: 16-21. 

On  predictive  prophecy  see  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy,  chap,  ii ;  Kuenen, 
Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,  chap,  v  ;  Orelli,  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  50-62; 
A.  B.  Davidson  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  120  f.;  Volz,  art. 
"Prophetic  Literature  "  (§§  16  f.),  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  Hoffmann,  Weissagung  und 
Erfullung  (1841) ;  KlTTEL,  Profetie  und  Weissagung  (1899). 

§  22.  The  Prophet  Himself  is  to  be  thought  of — 

1.  As  one  of  the  people,  the  product  of  the  agencies  at  work  in  the 
nation,  identified  in  spirit  and  life  with  his  age,  choosing  one  or  another 
of  the  political  parties  of  his  times,  and  always  speaking  a  message 
primarily  intended  for  his  contemporaries. 

2.  As  a  reformer,  whose  chief  function  was  to  improve  the  religious 
condition  of  his  people,  dealing  with  the  sins  of  his  day  rather  than 
with  those  of  other  periods,  never  speaking  except  to  influence  the 
lives  and  thoughts  of  those  whom  he  addressed. 

3.  As  himself  one  of  the  objective  factors  influencing  his  people  and 
his  age,  representing  ideas  far  in  advance  of  his  times,  urging  poli- 
cies directly  in  contrast  with  those  of  his  age,  contending  with  an 
audacious  courage  against  the  tendencies  of  his  times,  and  all  the  while 
shaping  and  molding  these  times. 

§  23.  The  Prophetic  Work  is  also  to  be  considered  from  the  point  of 
view  of — 

1.  The  prophefs  life  in  each  case,  and  his  relation  to  the  technical 
schools  of  the  prophets  which  were  in  vogue.  Some  were  professional 
prophets,  among  these  the  so-called  false  prophets ;  others  refused  to 
be  so  considered.  Some  were  priests,  especially  in  the  closing  periods 
of  prophetic  work.  Some  lived  in  the  cities ;  others  came  from  the 
country.  Some  were  of  royal  blood ;  others,  of  the  most  humble 
parentage.  Some  exercised  the  powers  of  king  or  dictator;  others 
lived  the  life  of  martyrs  and  were  placed  in  dungeons. 

See  I  Sam.  10:9-12,  25  ff.;  11:14  f.;  13:8  ff.;  I  Kings  19:19  ft.;  20:35;  22:27  U 
2  Kings  2:15  ff.;  Amos  7: 14  ff.;  Jer.  1: 1;  38:6;  Ezek.  1:3;  4:14. 

2.  His  relation  to  the  priest.     At  first  priest  and  prophet  were  hardly 


20  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

to  be  distinguished;  later  the  prophet's  high  conceptions  of  God  and 
life  bring  him  into  direct  conflict  with  the  priests  of  his  times;  after  a 
time,  prophet  and  priest  join  hands  in  promulgating  the  new  law  of 
Deuteronomy,  the  priest  thereby  gaining  great  advantage  ;  still  later, 
the  priest  with  the  written  "law"  takes  the  place  of  the  prophet  and 
his  "  word,"  the  last  prophets  being  themselves  priests. 

See  I  Sam.,  chap.  3;  7:5-11;  Hos.  4:6-10;  5:  1  ff.;  Amos  7:10  ff.;  2  Kings,  chaps. 
22  and  23;  Ezek.  1:3;  4:14;  chaps.  40-48;  Hag.  2: 11  ff.;  Mai.  1:6-14;  2: 1-9. 

3.  His  relation  to  the  sage — one  of  sympathy  and  co-operation, 
although  the  prophet  always  represented  the  national  point  of  view, 
while  the  sage  stood  for  the  universal. 

See  Prov.  29:18;  Am.  5:10;  Isa.  29:21;  Prov.  11:21;  and  20:7;  cf.  Jer.  32:18; 
and  cf.  Cheyne,/<?£  and  Solomon,  pp.  1 19  ff.,  182  f. 

§24.  Israelitish  History,  Literature,  and  Prophecy  share  alike  in  the 
characteristics  of  the  Israelitish  development. 

1.  Israelitish  history,  whatever  may  have  been  the  special  divine 
relationship  sustained  to  it,  includes,  on  the  part  of  its  greatest  leaders, 
actions  of  the  most  sinful  character,  and,  on  the  part  of  the  nation  itself, 
actions  and  institutions  of  the  most  degraded  type.  It  is  the  his- 
tory of  a  nation,  starting  on  the  level  of  other  nations,  and  gradually 
rising,  through  the  influence  of  great  leaders,  to  a  more  and  more  noble, 
more  and  more  true,  conception  of  God,  and  with  every  step  upward 
leaving  behind  some  belief  or  custom  inherited  from  paganism  which 
had  become  inconsistent  with  the  higher  ideal  of  God.  This  history 
exhibits  the  influence  of  the  divine  spirit  —  an  influence  exerted  with  all 
the  strength  of  almighty  power  acting  in  consistency  with  other  attri- 
butes, and  working  in  the  hearts  of  a  people  held  down  by  sin. 
It  is,  in  short,  the  story  of  a  nation  lifted  little  by  little  from  the  lowest 
condition  of  nomadism,  and  exhibiting  at  each  stage  of  progress  the 
weaknesses  and  sins  common  to  peoples  at  that  stage  of  advancement. 

2.  Israelitish  literature,  whatever  may  have  been  the  special  divine 
relationship  sustained  to  it,  contains  different  and  differing  accounts  of 
the  same  event,  including  errors  and  inconsistencies  in  statement,  if 
interpreted  in  the  light  of  history  and  science,  and  shows  a  total  disre- 
gard for  the  common  laws  of  history-writing  accepted  in  our  time. 
It  is  the  literature  of  a  nation  passing  through  successive  periods  of 
national  growth,  each  period  making  some  new  contribution  toward  a 
better  knowledge  of  God  and  of  his  relationship  to  man.  This  litera- 
ture exhibits  the  influence  of  the  divine  spirit — an  influence  exerted 
with  all  the  strength  of  almighty  power  acting  in  consistency  with  other 


DEFINITION    AND    PRINCIPLES  21 

attributes,  and  working  in  the  hearts  of  a  people  of  Semitic  blood,  living 
during  these  periods  of  the  world's  history.  The  literature  shared  all 
of  the  merits  and  the  demerits  of  the  history.  Whatever  one  was,  the 
other  was.  It  is,  in  short,  the  literature  of  a  people  brought,  from 
time  to  time,  into  contact  with  the  great  nations  of  the  world,  absorb- 
ing from  these  nations  good,  as  well  as  bad,  and  transmitting  to  the 
next  age  the  accumulations  of  the  past  to  be  arranged  and  interpreted 
according  to  the  ideas  of  each  successive  period. 

3.  Old  Testament  prophecy  is  both  history  and  literature  ;  the  former, 
if  viewed  as  a  movement;  the  latter,  if  viewed  as  the  product  of  that 
movement.  The  prophets  made  history  as  well  as  literature.  As  agents 
of  the  higher  power  which  they  firmly  believed  had  especially  called 
them  to  its  service,  they  entered  heartily  into  everything  that  consti- 
tuted national  life.  At  times  they  were  actually  in  full  control  of  the 
nation's  development  and  for  a  period  they  almost  exclusively  consti- 
tuted the  literary  class.  Whatever  is  said  of  Israel's  history  may  be 
said  of  Israel's  prophetism ;  whatever  is  said  of  Israel's  literature 
may  be  said  of  Israel's  prophecy.  It  was  a  movement,  in  some  respects 
the  most  eventful  in  the  history  of  human  thought,  exhibiting  more 
definitely  than  any  other,  perhaps,  the  direct  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 


Part  Second 


THE  HISTORY  OF  PROPHECY  THROUGH  HOSEA 

III.  Prophecy    and   Prophetism    during   the    Period    of    the 

Patriarchs  and  Judges. 

IV.  Prophecy  and  Prophetism  During  the  Davidic  Period. 

V.  The    Background   of   Prophecy   and    Prophetism    in   the 
Northern  Kingdom. 

VI.  The    Product   of    Prophecy    and   Prophetism    from    933- 
800  B.C. 

VII.  The  Prophetic  Message  of  the  Early  Histories. 

VIII.  The  Prophetic  Message  of  Amos. 

IX.  The  Prophetic  Message  of  Hosea. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PROPHECY    AND    PROPHETISM    DURING    THE    PERIOD    OF 
THE    PATRIARCHS    AND    JUDGES. 

§25.  The  Scope  of  This  Period  is  practically  that  of  Israel's  begin- 
nings, commencing  with  Abraham  and  closing  about  the  time  of 
Samuel's  birth.  It  includes  therefore  (1)  the  early  nomadic  life  in 
Palestine,  (2)  the  descent  into  Egypt,  (3)  the  exodus  from  Egypt, 
(4)  the  residence  in  the  wilderness,  (5)  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  (6) 
the  settlement  in  Canaan  —  a  period  of  more  than  one  thousand  years. 
§  26.  The  Character  of  the  Period  may  not  easily  be  indicated. 
The  earlier  portion  could  be  only  what  a  nomadic  life  made  possible. 
It  was  certainly  not  a  period  furnishing  prophetic  thought  or  pro- 
phetic movement.  It  might  be  called  //v-prophetic,  because  it  pre- 
ceded, and  prepared  the  way  for,  the  earliest  phase  of  prophetic 
development  which  started  with  Samuel.  The  religious  spirit  was 
crude  and  primitive,  although  very  intense.  It  was  this  spirit,  how- 
ever, that  furnished  the  basis  on  which  prophecy  was  to  develop. 
It  was,  above  all,  the  period  in  which  the  older  Semitic  religion  came 
into  contact  with  the  Baalism  of  the  Canaanites,  in  which  Israel 
"assimilated  the  mass  of  the  Canaanites  with  their  thought  and  their 
principles"  (Davidson).  Israel's  religion  was  long  weighed  down 
with  the  foreign  elements  thus  absorbed ;  but  when  once  these  new 
elements  had  been  overcome  and  brought  into  control,  the  result  was 
something  which  proved  to  be  broader  and  warmer;  something  which 
could  not  have  existed  but  for  this  commingling. 

§27.  The  Contemporaneous  Literary  Sources  of  this 
period  are  few.  Those  that  exist  are  hardly  to  be  called 
prophetic.  The  determination  of  these  sources  is  at- 
tended with  much  difficulty  (cf.  §  3).  Entire  agreement 
has  not  yet  been  reached.  The  following  pieces,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  the 
literary  product  of  this  period : 
Gen.  4:23,24.  1.  The  Song  of  Lamech,  in  which  the  primitive  war- 

like spirit  of  the  early  Semites  finds  expression. 
Gen. 9:25-27.  2.  The  blessing  of  Noah,  in   which  the  hostility  of 

the   Hebrews    toward    the  Canaanites  in  post-Egyptian 
times  is  the  dominant  note. 
25 


26  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

3.  Portions  of  the  blessing  of  Jacob,  a  reflection  of  Gen.,  chap.  49. 
the  conditions  and  relations  of  the  tribes  in  the  days  of 

the  early  occupation  of  Canaan. 

4.  The  Song  of  the   Exodus,  in  which  the  triumph   Exod.  15:1-19. 
of  Jehovah  over  the  Egyptians  is  celebrated. 

5.  The  original  words  of  the  Decalogue,  in  which   Exod.  20: 1-17. 
ethical  and  religious  laws  for  the  newly  organized  nation 

are  formulated. 

6.  Some  portions  of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  con-   Exod.,  chaps. 

21-23. 
tabling  the  laws  required  for  the  conduct  of  social  and 

religious  life  in  the  newly  acquired  land  of  Canaan. 

7.  Notes  of  the  itinerary  from  which  the  later  accounts  Numb.,  chaps. 

J  10-25  and  33. 

were  developed. 

8.  Songs  of  the  desert,  arising  out  of  the  conditions  Numb.  21:14 1, 
of  nomadic  life. 

q.  Portions  of  Balaam's  addresses,  which  grew  out  of  Numb., chaps.  23, 

24- 

the  strife  between  Israel  and  Moab  in  the  days  of  con- 
quest and  settlement. 

10.  Portions  of  the   Song  of  Moses,  which   express  Deut.,chap.  33. 
the  ideals  and  hopes  of  the  later  days  of  this  period. 

11.  The    Song  of   Deborah,  a  triumphal  ode   upon  Judg.,  chap.  5. 
Israel's  overthrow  of  the  Canaanites  under  Sisera. 

12.  Jotham's  fable,  an   illustration  of  the   disturbed  Judg.  9:7-15. 
political  conditions  in  early  Israel. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  present  literary  form  of 
some  of  this  material  —  e.  g.,  the  Decalogue,  the  Bless- 
ing of  Jacob  —  is  from  a  date  later  even  than  900-800 
B.  C. 

§  28.  Constructive  Work. —  In  the  case  of  each  of  the  twelve  pieces 
cited  under  §  27,  consider  the  following  suggestions: 

1.  Ascertain  the  particular  century  to  which  the  piece  is  now  com- 
monly assigned,  together  with  the  grounds  on  which  its  assignment  to 
this  period  rests. 

2.  Separate  carefully  those  portions  of  the  piece  which  may  fairly 
be  regarded  as  having  had  their  origin  later  than  1050  B.  C,  indi- 
cating the  reasons  for  this  separation. 

3.  Describe  the  historical  background  of  the  piece  in  as  close 
detail  as  possible. 

4.  Indicate  succinctly  the  content  of  the  piece  —  what,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  is  said  in  it. 


THE    PERIOD    OF    THE    PATRIARCHS    AND    JUDGES 


27 


5.  Try  to  connect  the  content  with  the  historical  setting,  and  to 
discover  the  underlying  purpose  of  the  piece. 

6.  Formulate  the  principal  teachings,  the  most  vital  thought,  which 
the  piece  contains. 

§  29.  Later  Literary  Sources  of  information  relating  to 
this  period  and  throwing  light  upon  (1)  the  institutions, 
(2)  the  important  lives  and  events,  and  (3)  the  utterances 
of  the  principal  characters,  are  to  be  found  in  certain 
documents  or  books,  the  date  of  which  falls  a  considerable 
time  after  the  events  themselves.  This  material,  ordi- 
narily called  tradition,  represents  more  accurately  the 
point  of  view  of  the  later  age  in  which  it  took  its 
present  literary  form,  than  that  of  the  age  which  it 
describes.  The  following  are  the  principal  pieces  falling 
under  this  head  : 

1.  Books  (now  lost)  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  and 
of  Jashar,  probably  collections  of  songs  celebrating 
Israel's  victories  from  the  time  of  Moses  onward. 

2.  The  book  of  Judges,  a  compilation  of  stories  con- 
cerning the  conquest  of  Canaan,  and  of  heroic  deeds 
against  the  Canaanites  and  other  foes  of  Israel  in  the 
pre-monarchical  period.  These  stories  were  first  reduced 
to  writing  about  the  ninth  century  B.  C,  and  this  primi- 
tive work  underwent  thorough  revision  at  the  hands  of 
successive  editors  until  the  book  assumed  its  present 
form.  The  result  is  a  narrative  presenting  the  early 
history  in  Canaan  from  the  Deuteronomic  standpoint. 

3.  E,  one  of  the  constituent  documents  of  the 
Hexateuch,  taking  its  name  from  its  use  of  the  word 
Elohim  in  speaking  of  God,  compiled  probably  in  north- 
ern Israel,  and  narrating  the  ancient  traditions  and  early 

40:1—41:40;  s  J 

42:8-37;  Exod.   history    of   Israel   from    the  point   of  view   of   northern 

1 :  15—2 :  10;  J 

prophets,  living  not  later  than  850  B.  C. 

4.  J,  another  constituent  source  of  the  Hexateuch, 
deriving  its  name  from  its  use  of  the  name  Jehovah  in 
speaking  of  God,  compiled  in  Judah,  and  narrating  the 
ancient  traditions  and  early  history  of  Israel  from  the 
point  of  view  of  southern  prophets,  living  not  later 
than  750  B.  C. 


Numb.  21 :  14 ; 
Jos.  10:  12, 13; 
2  Sam.  1 :  17-27. 


E.  g.,  Judg.  6:1- 
10;  10:  6-16; 
chaps.  17  and 
18;  21 11-14; 
2:6—3:6. 


E.  g-,  Gen.  20:1- 
17;  21  :8  — 
2a:  13;  31:2-16, 
19-24.  32-42,  51 
—32:2;  35:1-4, 
6<5-8;  37:5-36 
(in  the  main) ; 


17:1^—18:27; 
20: 1 — 24: 8; 
Deut.,  chap.  33. 
E.  g.,  Gen.  2 :  46 
— 4 :  26 ;  6 : 1-8 ; 
9:18-27;  11 : 1-9; 
12: 1-40,  6-20; 
18:1— 19: 28,30- 
38;  24:1-67; 
Exod.  34 : 1-28. 


28  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

k.  D,  a  third    Hexateuchal    source,    containing  the  Especiaiiy.Deut., 

•J         '  chaps,  i-ii. 

greater  part  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  and  other 
materials,  especially  in  the  book  of  Joshua,  characterized 
by  the  same  style  and  spirit,  being  chiefly  a  revision  of 
the  earlier  legislation  and  a  narrative  of  the  events  con- 
nected with  the  promulgation  of  the  Mosaic  law.  This 
is  probably  the  book  that  was  found  in  the  reign  of 
King  Josiah  (621  B.  C). 

6.    P,  a  fourth   Hexateuchal   source,  being  a  narra-   E.g.,  Gen.  1:1  — 

2 :  4<z/  5 : 1-28 ; 

tive  of    Israel's    history  beginning   with    creation   itself,      6:9-22;  9:1-17; 

.  11:10-27;  17: 1- 

compiled  by  men  controlled   by  the  priestly  spirit  and      27;  28:1-9; 

V  ,  .,.  36:1-30;  Exod., 

representing  the  point  of  view  of  the  post-exilic  Jews;      6:2—7:13; 

„  12:1-20;  34:29 

in   its   latest    form,   not   earlier  than  the  days  of   Ezra,      —40:38;  Book 

of  Leviticus ; 
440  B.  C.  Numb.  1:1— 10: 

28;  15: 1-41. 

§  30.  In  the  Interpretation  of  These  Later  Sources  it  will  often  be 
found  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  thought  of  the  writer's  time 
and  that  of  the  times  of  the  event.  In  general,  three  schools  of 
interpretation  exist : 

1.  The  school  which  maintains  that  the  material  of  these  documents 
is,  for  the  most  part,  contemporaneous  with  the  events  described  or 
words  uttered ;  and  that,  in  any  case,  by  direct  divine  interposition, 
the  narratives  have  been  rendered  absolutely  accurate  in  every  par- 
ticular, and  consequently  are  to  be  understood  literally,  the  words,  for 
example,  placed  in  the  mouths  of  Abraham,  or  Jacob,  or  Moses, 
being  the  exact  words  used. 

2.  The  school  which  maintains  that  this  material  has  no  historical 
value,  since  it  is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  the  creation  of  the  later  author, 
the  representations  made  by  him  belonging  to  his  own  time  rather 
than  to  the  times  which  he  describes. 

3.  The  school  which  concedes  the  later  date  of  the  literary  author- 
ship of  the  books  in  their  present  form  ;  but  insists  that  these  authors 
made  use  of  earlier  writings,  some  of  them  very  old,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, some,  at  least,  of  the  essential  substance,  belongs  to  the  age 
of  the  events.  The  point  of  view  of  this,  the  third  school,  is  taken  in 
these  studies.  It  is  frankly  conceded  that  the  adoption  of  this  posi- 
tion often  leaves  one  in  great  uncertainty,  for  the  reason  that  in  many 
cases  sufficient  data  do  not  exist  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  sharply  distin- 
guishing the  writer's  point  of  view  from  that  of  the  times  of  which  he 
is  giving  the  history. 


THE    PERIOD    OF    THE    PATRIARCHS    AND    JUDGES  2Q 

§31.  Constructive  Work. —  It  is  important  to  make  use  of  these 
later  traditions,  and  to  this  end  it  is  suggested  that,  in  the  case  of  each 
of  the  collections  or  documents  indicated  in  §  29,  the  student  — 

1.  Secure  from  some  authority  (see  below)  the  actual  Scripture 
material  which  scholars  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  included  in  it. 

2.  Consider  the  various  points  which  are  thought  to  be  characteristic 
of  it. 

3.  Study  closely  the  times  in  which  it  is  claimed  to  have  had  its 
origin,  and  the  important  ideas  of  those  times. 

4.  Note  the  "traditions"  given  concerning  these  early  times  which 
form  the  basis  of  this  study,  and  distinguish  the  sympathies  and 
antipathies  which  have  been  transferred  from  the  later  period. 

5.  Sum  up  briefly  the  essential  events  and  ideas  which,  after  due 
allowance  has  been  made  for  such  transference,  may  fairly  be  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  period  described. 

See  especially  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  pp. 
116-72;  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  92-156, 
and  Vol.  II;  Mitchell,  The  World  before  Abraham,  pp.  16-67;  B.  W.  Bacon, 
The  Genesis  of  Genesis  (1893);  Idem,  The  Triple  Tradition  of  the  Exodus  (1894);  Addis, 
The  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I  (1893),  Vol.  II  (1898);  articles  "  Hexateuch,"  in 
Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  Gunkel,  The  Legends 
of  Genesis;  and  the  commentaries  by  Driver,  Moore,  Nowack,  Kennedy  and 
H.  P.  Smith  on  Deuteronomy,  Judges,  and  Samuel. 

§  32.  Monumental  Sources  throwing  light  upon  the  times  of  this 
period  include,  among  other  material : 

1.  The  Hammurabi  code  of  laws,  dating  from  about  2250  B.  C, 
and  revealing  fully  the  advanced  stage  of  civilization  already  attained 
by  the  Babylonians. 

See  R.  F.  Harper,  The  Code  of  Hammurabi,  King  of  Babylonia  (1904); 
L.  W.  King,  The  Letters  and  Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi  (1898);  S.  A.  Cook,  The 
Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi  (1903);  W.  Hayes  Ward,  "Who  Was 
Hammurabi?"  Century,  July,  1903;  C.  F.  Kent,  "The  Recently  Discovered  Civil 
Code  of  Hammurabi,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XXI  (1903),  pp.  1 75-90;  C.  H.  W. 
Johns,  "Notes  on  the  Code  of  Hammurabi,"  American  fournal  of  Semitic  Languages 
and  Literatures,  Vol.  XIX  (1903),  pp.  96-107;  Idem,  The  Oldest  Code  of  Laws  in  the 
World:  The  Code  of  Laws  Promulgated  by  Hammurabi,  King  of  Babylon,  B.  C. 
2285-2242  (1903);  T.  G.  PINCHES,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology, 
November,  1902;  W.  Hayes  Ward,  "The  Code  of  Hammurabi,  King  of  Babylon 
(about  2250  B.  C.),"  Independent,  1903,  pp.  67-70,  127-32,  183-90;  V.  Scheil, 
Memoires  de  la  delegation  en  Perse,  Tome  IV  (1902);  H.  Winckler,  Die  Geselze 
Hammurabis  (1903);  D.  H.  MiJLLER,  Die  Gesetze  Hammurabis  und  ihr  Verhaltnis 
zur  Mosaischen  Geselzgebung  sowie  zu  den  XII  Tafeln  (1903);  Kohler  und  Peiser, 
Hammurabi's    Gesetz;  Band    I,    Uebersetzung,  furistische    Wiedergabe,    Erlduterung 


30  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

(1903);  GRIMME,  Das  Gesetz  Chammurabis  und  Moses  (1903);  OETTLI,  Das  Geselz 
Hammurabis  und  die  Thora  Israels  (1903);  J.  JEREMIAS,  Moses  und  Hammurabi 
(I903)- 

2.  Babylonian  contract  tablets  from  the  time  of  Abraham,  showing 
that  persons  bearing  Hebrew  names  were  then  in  Babylonia,  that  there 
was  much  intercourse  between  Babylonia  and  the  West,  and  that 
Babylonian  civilization  was  already  highly  developed. 

See  R.  F.  Harper,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature — Selected  Translations 
(1901),  pp.  256-72. 

3.  The  Tell-el-Amarna  letters,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century 
B.  C,  and  showing  the  extent  of  Babylonian  influence  in  Canaan  and 
the  disturbed  political  condition  there  at  that  time. 

See  Bezold,  Oriental  Diplomacy  (1892);  Budge  and  Bezold,  The  Tell-el- 
Amarna  Tablets  (1892);  Winckler,  The  Tell-el-Amarna  Letters  (1896);  Petrie, 
Syria  and  Egypt  from  the  Tell-el-Amarna  Letters  (1898);  Niebuhr,  Die  Amarna-Zeit 
(1899);  R.  F.  Harper,  op.  cit.,  pp.  217-41. 

4.  The  popular  Egyptian  story  entitled  "  The  Tale  of  Two 
Brothers,"  which  originated  about  the  thirteenth  century  B.  C,  and 
affords  a  parallel  to  the  story  of  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife. 

See  Petrie,  Egyptian  Tales,  Vol.  II  (1895),  pp.  36  ff.;  Records  of  the  Past  (1st 
series),  Vol.11,  pp.  137-52;  Maspero,  Conies  pnpulaires  egyptiennes. 

5.  The  Stele  of  Merneptah,  mentioning  the  Israelites  and  illus- 
trating Egyptian  activities  in  Canaan  about  the  time  of  the  exodus. 

See  J.  H.  Breasted,  Biblical  World,  Vol.  IX  (1897),  pp.  62-68;  Spiegelberg, 
Zeitschrift  fur  aegyptische  Sprache,  Vol.  XXXIV  (1896),  pp.  1-25  ;  Hommel,  Expository 
Times,  October,  1896;  Petrie,  Contemporary  Review,  May,  1896;  Sayce,  Academy, 
July,  1896;  Breasted,  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt,  III,  §§602  ff.;  10-12  ;  629-38. 

6.  The  lists  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  Thothmes  III.  (1501-1447  B.  C), 
Seti  I.  (1313-1293  B.  C),  Ramses  II.  (1293-1226  B.  C),  and  Ramses 
III.  (1198-1167  B.C.),  furnishing  evidence  of  Egyptian  activities  in 
Palestine. 

See  Records  of  the  Past  (new  series),  Vol.  VI,  pp.  24  ff.,  31  ff.;  W.  Max 
Muller,  Asien  und  Europa  (1893),  pp.  159,  164  ff.,  227  ff.,  393 ;  Sayce,  Patriarchal 
Palestine,  pp.  235-40. 

7.  The  Egyptian  narrative  entitled  "The  Travels  of  a  Mohar," 
coming  from  the  reign  of  Ramses  II.  and  being  an  imaginative  recital 
of  a  trip  through  Palestine. 

See  SAYCE,  Patriarchal  Palestine  (1895),  PP-  204-24;  Records  of  the  Past  (ist 
series),  Vol.  II,  pp.  107-16. 

8.  The  legend  concerning  the  birth  and  boyhood  of  Sargon  I., 
king  of  Agade,  a  story  furnishing  some  parallels  to  the  narrative  of  the 
birth  of  Moses. 


THE    PERIOD    OF    THE    PATRIARCHS    AND    JUDGES  3 1 

See  R.  F.  Harper,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature  —  Selected  Translations 
(1901),  p.  I. 

9.  Historical  inscriptions  of  Nebuchadrezzar  I.,  king  of  Babylon 
(about  1 1 40  B.  C),  and  Tiglath-pileser  I.,  king  of  Assyria  (about  n 00 
B.  C),  yielding  much  information  concerning  the  power  and  influence 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  in  the  twelfth  century  B.  C. 

See  R.  F.  Harper,  op.  cit.,  pp.  8-27;  W.  Lotz,  Die  Inschriften  Tiglathpileser's, 
I   (1880);    Eb.   Schrader,  Keilinschriftliche  Bibliothek,  Vol.   I  (1889),   pp.  14-49. 

§33.  Constructive  Work. —  Prepare  a  brief  statement  in  relation  to 
each  of  these  pieces,  presenting  the  essential  items  of  interest  from 
the  point  of  view  of  Israel's  history  and  thought  in  this  early  period. 
For  these  materials  in  general  and  their  value  see  the  literature  cited 
in  §§  2,  32,  and  also  the  following  : 

S.  R.  Driver,  "Hebrew  Authority,"  in  Hogarth's  Authority  and  Archceology, 
pp.  35-79;  C.  J.  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  pp.  62-133;  Sayce,  Higher  Criticism 
and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments  (1894);  Idem,  Patriarchal  Palestine ;  Hommel,  The 
Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition  as  Lllustrated  by  the  Monuments  (1897);  W.  Max  Muller, 
Asien  und  Europa  nach  altaegyptischen  Denkmdlern  (1893);  L.  B.  Paton,  Early 
History  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (1901);  Schrader,  Die  Keilinschriften  und  das  Alte 
Testament  (3d  ed.  1902);  T.  G.  Pinches,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  the  His- 
torical Records  and  Legends  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  (1902). 

§  34.  Constructive  Work. —  On  the  basis  of  the  monumental  material 
cited  in  §  32,  consider  in  general  (1)  the  relations  of  Israel  with  other 
nations ;  (2)  the  various  changes  in  Israel's  geographical,  historical, 
and  social  environment  during  this  early  period ;  (3)  the  help 
received  from  it  for  a  better  understanding  of  Israel's  life  and  religion. 

§  35.  Study  the  Institutions  expressive  of  religious  thought  as  they 
existed  in  this  period,  in  general  (see  my  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old 
Testament  [1905],  §§  15,  16),  and  in  particular,  viz.: 

1.  The  Priest ;  see  Priestly  Element,  §§  59-61. 

2.  The  Place  of  Worship,  §§  73,  74. 

3.  Sacrifice,  §§  83,  84. 

4.  Feasts,  §§  96,  97. 

5.  The  Sabbath,  §§  108,  109. 

6.  The  Clean  and  Unclean,  §§  122,  123. 

7.  Prayer,  §137,  1. 

8.  The  Vow,  §  140,  1. 

9.  Blessings  and  Cursings,  §  143,  1. 

10.  The  Ban,  §  146,  1. 
n.  The  Oath,  §  149,  1. 
12.  The  Fast,  §  152,  1. 


32  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

13.  Consultation  with  the  Deity  through  Oracles,  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  the  Ephod,  the  Lot,  §  155,  1. 

14.  Consultation  with  the  Deity  through  Magic,  Divination,  Sorcery, 
Witchcraft,  §  158,  1. 

15.  Mourning  Customs,  §  161,  1. 

16.  Circumcision,  §  164,  1. 

§  36.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Religious  Sentiment  of  the  Times. — 
Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  thus  collected  formulate  a  general 
statement  which  will  characterize  the  religious  sentiment  of  the  times 
in  respect  to  — 

1.  Its  purity  from  superstition. 

2.  Its  stage  of  advancement. 

3.  Its  simplicity  or  complexity. 

4.  Its  adaptation  to  nomadic  life. 

5.  Its  adaptation  to  agricultural  life. 

6.  The  presence  of  elements  approved  or  disapproved  in  later  times 
by  the  prophets. 

7.  The  presence  of  elements  common  to  other  Semitic  religions. 

8.  The  presence  of  elements  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  religion. 

9.  The  relative  importance  of  the  religious  and  the  moral  elements. 

§  37.  Survey  Rapidly  the  Great  Characters  and  Events 
of  this  period,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining,  in  the  case  of 
each,  the  peculiar  religious  significance  which  it  must 
have  suggested  to  the  people  of  the  earliest  times,  e.  g.  : 

1.  The  life  of  Abraham,  with  its  lessons  of  joyful  Gen.  12:1—25:11. 
communion  between  Jehovah  and  his  people. 

2.  The  characters  of  Isaac  and  Jacob,  suggestive  of  the   0011.25:19—50:3. 
low   standards    of   religion    and   morality    prevalent    in 
patriarchal  times,  and  of  the  strife  between  Israel  and  the 
neighboring  tribes. 

3.  The  career  of  Joseph,  teaching  Jehovah's  preserv-  Gen.  37:1—50:26. 
ing  care  of  his  people  and  the  triumph  of  true  virtue. 

4.  The  residence  in  Egypt,  welding  the  captive  clans  Exod.,cnaps.i;  2. 
into  a  unit  through  common  suffering,  and  bringing  them 

into  contact  with  the  advanced  civilization  and  religion 
of  Egypt. 

5.  The  exodus  from  Egypt,  furnishing  convincing  Bxod.,  chaps.  5- 
evidence  of  Jehovah's  care  of  Israel  and  his  power  to 

deliver  them  from  the  mightiest  foes. 


THE    PERIOD    OF    THE    PATRIARCHS    AND    JUDGES  33 

•E"-irhNumb  6*  The  resi{*ence  in   the  wilderness,  necessitating  a 

chaps.  10-33.       simple,  abstemious  manner  of  life,  and  emphasizing  the 
nation's  absolute  dependence  upon  Jehovah's  favor. 

^chap^rV  ao-  7"  The  work  of  Moses  in  organizing  the  clans  into  a 

Numb.,/««m.   nation,  giving  them  a  new  conception  of  Jehovah,  and 
laying  the  foundations  of  their  religion. 
Joshua  and  8.  The  lessons  of  the  conquest,  which  made  evident 

Judges,  passim,  *■ 

the  necessity  of  hearty  co-operation  among  the  clans, 
and  showed  the  superiority  of  Jehovah  to  the  gods  of 
Canaan. 

E.g.,  Judg.,  9.  The  anarchy  in  the  times  of  the  Tudges,  when  the 

chaps.  8;  11;  12.  J  jo 

nation  was  in  danger  of  disintegration  and  was  held  to- 
gether only  by  the  common  worship  of  Jehovah. 

10.  The  significance  of  the  settlement  in  Canaan. 
In  this  work,  the  greatest  effort  must  be  made  to  re- 
construct the  picture  of  the  times  of  the  event,  in  dis- 
tinction from  those  in  which  the  narrative,  in  each  case, 
was  written.    The  question  is:  What  was  the  significance 
of  Abraham,  or  Moses,  or  the  exodus,  or  the  conquest  to 
the  people  of  these  early  times?    We  do  not,  at  this  point, 
care  what  the  later  generations  thought.     What  special 
impression   did  these  great  lives  and  these  wonderful 
events  make  on  the  people  of  the  times  of  which  they 
were  a  part  ? 
§  38.    Constructive  Study. — Consider  now  the  religious  progress  indi- 
cated by  these  lives  and  events,  and  formulate  the  same  in  a  series  of 
propositions  under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  Faith  in  the  power  of  Jehovah  to  deliver. 

2.  The  consequences  of  sin. 

3.  The  reward  of  righteousness. 

4.  The  nation's  conception  of  its  own  future. 

5.  Israel's  attitude  toward  other  tribes  and  nations. 

6.  The  existence  of  other  gods  than  Jehovah. 

7.  The  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel. 

8.  The  nation's  conception  of  Jehovah. 

§  39.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Prophet  and  Prophetic 

Work. —  Study  the  more   important  instances  in  which 

reference  is   made   to   the    prophet,  or    his   work,  viz.: 

Gen.  20: 7(E).       Abraham  is  called  a  prophet ;  Moses  is  represented  as 

Deut.  18:15  (D).     calling   himself  a   prophet;    the  song  of  "Miriam,  the 


34  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

prophetess,"  upon  the  overthrow  of  Pharaoh's  army;  the   Exod.is:2of.,(E) 
prominent  part  in  the  overthrow  of  Sisera's  army  given   judg.  4:4«. 
to  "Deborah,  a  prophetess;"  and  the  description  of  the   Numb.,  chaps. 

r      *  22-24  i  J  ana  Ei. 

work  of  Balaam,  the  prophet. 

1.  Note  the  fact  that  all  these  passages  are  in  narra- 
tives that  received  their  literary  form  from  the  hands  of 
prophetic  editors  later  than  this  period,  and  consider,  in 
view  of  this  fact,  whether  the  term  "prophet"  in  each 
case  is  properly  applied  to  the  individual  in  question. 

2.  Upon  the  basis  of  these  statements,  consider  how 
comparatively  inactive  the  prophetic  function  still  is  at 
this  time. 

3.  Consider,  further,  the  fact  that  in  this  period, 
Israel,  like  other  nations,  was  accustomed  to  resort  to 
wizards,  sorcerers,  necromancers,  for  information  con- 
cerning the  will  of  the  Deity,  and  that  these  classes  of 
wonder-workers  occupied  a  large  place  in  the  thought 
and  life  of  the  people. 

§40.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Principal  Religious  Ideas,  prophetic 
or  otherwise,  during  this  period  of  patriarchs  and  judges.  From  the 
various  sources  cited — viz.,  (1)  contemporaneous  literature  (§§27,  28), 
(2)   later   literature   (§§29-31),  (3)  monumental   literature  (§§32-34), 

(4)  religious  institutions   as  they  stood   in   these   periods   (§§35>36), 

(5)  the  great  characters  and  events,  as  distinguished  from  the  history 
of  them  prepared  in  later  times  (§§37,38)  —  let  us  endeavor  to  for- 
mulate the  religious  ideas  as  they  were  entertained  in  those  days : 

1.  As  relating  to  God  and  the  supernatural  world. —  (a)  What,  for 
example,  was  the  opinion  held  among  the  people  at  large  concerning 
Jehovah  ?  What  are  some  of  the  explanations  of  the  origin  of  the  word 
Jehovah?  What  conception  of  the  Deity  is  involved  in  each  of  these 
explanations  ?  What  other  names  of  the  Deity  were  employed  in  this 
period  ?  Is  there  evidence  that  any  effort  was  being  made  by  certain 
leaders  to  introduce  a  conception  of  the  Deity  quite  different  from  that 
held  by  the  mass  of  the  people  ?  What  attributes  of  God  are  receiving 
special  emphasis  at  this  time  ?  Are  there  in  the  contemporaneous 
literature  references  to  Jehovah  as  the  God  of  creation  ?  (ft)  Do  the 
people  of  the  times  believe  in  the  existence  and  manifestation  of 
angels?  If  so,  what  relation  do  these  angels  sustain  to  God?  Are  there 
other  superhuman  beings  who  have  power  over  human  life  and  fortune  ? 
(c)  What  is  the  opinion  of  the  times  (that  is,  of  the  leaders  as  well  as 


THE    PERIOD    OF    THE    PATRIARCHS    AND    JUDGES  35 

the  masses)  concerning  spirits  ?  Were  these  spirits  always  evil  ?  Was 
there  any  connection  between  these  spirits  and  the  spirits  of  dead 
ancestors  ?  What  common  methods  of  sorcery,  witchcraft,  and  necro- 
mancy were  employed  among  the  people  ?  What  attitude  toward  all 
this  was  assumed  by  the  later  writers?  What  evidence  is  there  that  in 
the  period  itself  these  practices  were  discountenanced  ? 

2.  As  relating  to  man. —  (a)  What  may  be  regarded  as  the  sub- 
stantial consensus  of  this  period  as  to  the  origin  of  man,  his  relation 
to  the  Deity,  his  relation  to  the  animal  world,  his  future  place  in  the 
world-economy  ?  (b)  What  conceptions  of  sin  and  guilt  exist  at  this 
time,  and  in  what  relationship  do  these  conceptions  stand  to  the  idea 
of  God  commonly  entertained  ?  Define  sin,  as  the  people  understood 
it ;  and  the  relationship  of  guilt  to  sin.  (c)  In  what  way  was  atone- 
ment made  for  sin  ?  Was  it  really  in  any  proper  sense  atonement? 
(d)  What  was  their  conception  of  the  future  world  ?  In  what  sense 
was  death  understood  to  be  related  to  sin,  and  sin  to  death  ?  How  did 
the  belief  in  the  return  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead  bear  upon  all  this  ? 

3.  As  relating  to  Israel' s  future. —  (a)  Was  Israel  yet  a  nation? 
Were  there  any  really  national  conceptions  ?  Had  reference  been 
made  to  the  coming  "day  of  Jehovah"?  (0)  How  did  the  anticipa- 
tion and  realization  of  possessing  the  Holy  Land  prepare  the  way  for 
ideas  of  Israel's  future  ?  (V)  Is  there  yet  any  doctrine  of  the  future  of 
the  outside  nations,  i.  e.,  the  heathen  ?  (d)  Has  there  been  any  certain 
reference  to  a  messianic  king,  or  to  a  royal  order?  (<?)  Accepting  the 
early  origin  of  the  substance  of  Deut.,  chap.  18,  what  steps  have  been 
taken  toward  the  establishment  of  the  prophetic  order,  and  what  is  the 
logical  connection  of  this  order  with  the  practices  of  witchcraft,  etc., 
for  which  it  was  to  be  a  substitute? 

4.  As  relating  to  ethical  standards  and  worship.  —  (a)  What  is  a  rea- 
sonable statement  describing  the  standard  of  morality  prevalent  in 
those  days  ?  Was  it  the  same  in  general  for  individuals  and  for  the 
nation  ?  Or  can  there  be  detected  a  difference  ?  (b)  To  what  extent, 
if  at  all,  had  emphasis  been  placed  on  the  idea  of  personal  and  national 
righteousness  ?  Was  there  such  a  thing  as  faith  in  those  days  ?  If  so, 
faith  in  what,  or  in  whom?  Define  the  words  "faith"  and  "right- 
eousness," as  they  seem  to  be  used,  (V)  What  conception  do  the 
people  have  concerning  a  so-called  covenant-relationship  between  them 
and  Jehovah  ?  What  did  this  call  for  on  their  part  ?  on  his  ?  (d)  Is 
the  routine  of  worship  in  this  period  simple  or  complicated  ?  pure  or 


2,6  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

corrupt  ?  What,  briefly,  were  the  principal  factors  at  the  beginning  of 
the  period?  What  new  elements  have  crept  in  during  the  period? 
Have  these  debased  or  elevated  the  older  form  ?  Was  there  any  good 
derived  from  contact  with  these  new  elements  ?  If  so,  what  ?  If  not, 
how  may  we  explain  the  divine  providence  in  bringing  the  older  form 
into  touch  with  the  new  ? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PROPHECY  AND  PROPHETISM    DURING  THE  DAVID1C  PERIOD. 

§41.  The  Scope  of  This  Period  is  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  com- 
mencing with  Samuel's  birth  and  closing  with  the  disruption  of  the 
United  Kingdom  after  Solomon's  death.  It  includes,  therefore,  (1) 
the  period  of  Samuel  and  the  beginning  of  the  monarchy  under  Saul, 
(2)  the  establishment  of  Jerusalem  as  the  capital  city  of  Israel,  (3)  the 
organization  of  the  kingdom,  (4)  the  work  of  David,  (5)  the  sudden 
development  of  Israel  as  a  world-power,  (6)  the  building  of  the  temple, 
(7)  the  further  adjustment  of  Israel's  affairs  to  the  outside  nations,  (8) 
the  work  of  Solomon. 

§42.  The  Character  of  the  Period  is  distinctly  prophetic,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  large  influence  of  Samuel,  Gad,  and  Nathan  upon  the 
conduct  of  public  affairs.  The  earlier  nomadic  customs  and  character- 
istics had  practically  disappeared,  and  had  given  place  to  the  usages 
and  activities  of  agricultural  and  urban  life.  The  long  struggle  against 
the  Canaanites  for  the  possession  of  the  land  had  driven  the  isolated  clans 
and  tribes  closer  together,  and  rendered  them  more  and  more  conscious 
of  their  inner  unity.  Their  common  dependence  upon,  and  worship 
of,  Jehovah  as  their  war-god  had  strengthened  this  tendency  toward  a 
unified  life.  With  a  considerable  addition  to  the  national  possessions 
derived  from  the  Canaanites  the  people  rose  above  their  Canaanitish 
neighbors  and  moved  forward  in  what  proved  to  be  a  most  rapid 
course  of  development.  The  prophets  appeared  as  exponents  of  the 
spirit  of  nationalism,  and  contributed  much  to  the  organization  and 
development  of  the  nation.  This  period  was  thus  the  birth-period  of 
both  prophecy  and  national  life  —  two  forces  which  continued  their 
development  in  the  closest  possible  connection  with  each  other,  and 
finally  passed  off  the  stage  of  history  together.  In  these  early  days  of 
national  existence  the  life  of  the  nation  was  strong  and  vigorous, 
abounding  in  energy  and  hope.  Prophecy  was  establishing  standards 
of  life  and  thought  which  were  to  serve  as  guides  in  all  its  future  devel- 
opment. It  was  in  large  measure  a  period  of  organization.  The  great 
change  which  came  during  this  period  may  be  measured  by  the  differ- 
ence in  the  gift  thought  worthy  of  a  king;  compare  the  gift  brought  to 
Saul  by  David  (1  Sam.  16:  20)  with  that  of  the  queen  of  Sheba  to  Solo- 
mon (1  Kings  10:  2). 

37 


38  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§43.  The  Contemporary  Literary  Sources  of  this  period 
are  few,  and  only  in  part  prophetic.  The  literary  activity 
of  the  prophets  has  not  yet  begun.  The  determination 
of  these  sources  is  attended  with  much  difficulty  (cf.  §3). 
Entire  agreement  has  not  yet  been  reached.  The  follow- 
ing pieces,  in  whole  or  in  part,  may,  however,  be  regarded 
as  the  literary  product  of  this  period  : 

1.  The  original  form  of  the  Song  of  Hannah  upon   1  Sam.  2 : 1-10. 
the  occasion  of  the  birth  of  her  son,  Samuel. 

2.  The  elegy  of  David  upon   Saul  and  Jonathan,  in   2  Sam.  1 :  19-27. 
which  expression  is  given  to  David's  feeling  of  personal 
bereavement  and  national  loss. 

3.  David's  lament  over  Abner,  in  which  he  mourns   2  Sam.  3:33,  34. 
the  death  of  Abner  and  expresses  his  indignation  at  the 
treachery  of  the  assassin. 

4.  Nathan's  parable  of  the  one  ewe  lamb,  which  carries  2  Sam.  12: 1-15. 
home  to  David  the  lesson  of  the  selfishness  and  enormity 

of  his  crime  against  Uriah,  the  Hittite. 

5.  The  "last  words  of  David"  which  in  their  present  2  Sam. 23:1-7. 
form  have  been  much  edited  by  later  hands. 

6.  Possibly  some  Davidic  psalms.  Ps.  18. 

7.  Other  psalms,  in  case  there  are  any  Davidic  psalms ; 
it  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  was  only  one 
psalmist  in  a  period  of  a  century,  if  psalm-writing  had 
been  entered  upon  at  all, 

8.  Solomon's  address  at  the  dedication  of  the  temple   1  Kings  8 :  12-26. 
which  is  in  its  present  form  permeated  by  the  Deutero- 

nomic  spirit. 

9.  Solomon's  work  as  a  "wise"  man  interested  in  the   1  Kings 4: 29-34. 
phenomena  of  nature  and  of  human  life  and  conduct. 

10.  Additions  to  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  made  Exod.,  chaps.  21- 
from  time  to  time  as  the  life  of  the  nation  expanded  and      23 

the  need  of  further  legislation  was  felt. 

n.  The  final  revision  of  the  Balaam  oracles.  Numb.,  chaps.  23, 

24. 
12.  The  books  (now  lost)  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  and   Numb.2i:i4;Jos. 

of  Jashar  (see  §  29).  "sam.1??  17-27. 

§  44.  Constructive  Study.  —  In  the  case  of  each  of  the  pieces  cited  in 
§43,  consider  the  following  suggestions: 

1.  Ascertain  the  various  views  concerning  the  time  of  the  origin  of 
the  piece,  together  with  the  grounds  on  which  its  assignment  to  this 
period  rests. 


PROPHECY    AND    PROPHETISM    DURING    THE    DAVIDIC    PERIOD       39 

2.  Separate  carefully  those  portions  of  the  piece  which  may  fairly 
be  regarded  as  having  had  their  origin  later  than  about  920  13.  C,  and 
indicate  the  reasons  for  this  separation. 

3.  Describe  the  historical  background  of  the  piece  in  as  close  detail 
as  possible. 

4.  Indicate  succinctly  the  content  of  the  piece  —  what,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  is  said  in  it  ? 

5.  Try  to  connect  the  content  with  the  historical  setting  and  to  dis- 
cover the  underlying  purpose  of  the  piece. 

6.  Formulate  the  principal  teachings,  the  most  vital  thought,  which 
the  piece  contains. 

§45.  Later  Literary  Sources  furnishing  information 
relating  to  this  period,  and  throwing  light  upon  (1)  the 
institutions,  (2)  the  important  lives  and  events,  (3)  the 
utterances  of  the  principal  characters,  are  to  be  found  in 
certain  documents  or  books,  the  date  of  which  falls  a 
considerable  time  after  the  events  they  describe.  This 
material,  ordinarily  called  tradition,  represents  more 
accurately  the  point  of  view  of  the  later  age  in  which 
it  took  its  present  literary  form,  than  that  of  the  age 
which  it  describes.  The  following  are  the  principal 
pieces  falling  under  this  head: 

1.  An  early  history  of  the  times  of  Saul   and  David,   1  Sam.9: 1—10:16; 

,     ,  r      1  chap,  n;  13:2— 

forming  one  of  the  constituent  sources  of   the  present      14:52:16:14-23; 

18 : 6-13, 20  29a/ 

books  of    Samuel,  and    characterized    by    the  primitive  19:11-17;  21:2- 

...  ,     ,      1      •     1  •  i_  10;  22:  if.,  6-23; 

nature  of  its   religious   and  theological  conceptions,  by  23:1-14;  chaps. 

1  1  25-27,  29,  30;  2 

its  realistic  style,  and  by  its  lenient  attitude  toward  the  Sam.,  chaps.  1- 

4,  6,  9:1 — 21  :i4, 

life  and  work  of  Saul.1  24. 

2.  A  second  history  of  the  times  of  Saul  and  David,  lS*™;7\'l*'™-}*\ 
coming  from  a  somewhat  later  time  and  from  a  different  ?i  .*6:£m5;  17*1 
point  of  view,  forming  another  constituent  element  of  ^lo^lg-lo-ig': 

'The  analysis  of  the  books  of  Samuel  here  given  is  that  of  H.  P.  Smith  in  The 
International  Critical  Commentary  on  Samuel  (1899).  Reference  may  also  be  made 
to  the  commentaries  of  Thenius-Lohr  (1898),  Budde  (1902),  Nowack  (1902),  and 
Kennedy  (1905);  Budde's  edition  of  the  text  in  the  Polychrome  Bible  (1894); 
WELLHAUSEN,  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  und  der  historischen  Biicher  des  Alien 
Testaments  (3d  ed.  1899);  Kittel,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  22  £f.;  Driver, 
Introduction  to  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.  1897),  pp.  172-85  ;  Sten- 
ning,  art.  "Samuel"  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol .IV  (1902);  Stade, 
art.  "Samuel"  in  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  IV  (1903);  Cheyne,  Devout  Study  of 
Criticism,  pp.  I-126. 


40  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

18-24; 21  :n-i6;   the  present  books  of  Samuel,  and  characterized  by  the 

22 13-5  ;  23 : 11 — 

24:26;  28;  31;      large  share  of  attention  given  to  the  life  and  work  of 
2  Sam.,  chaps.  ,  .,,,  ,.,...  , 

5-8.  Samuel,  by  a  considerable  measure  of  idealization,  and 

by  an  unmistakably  theological  point  of  view. 

1  Sam.  10:25^-27;  ?    Later  additions  to  the  earlier  histories  by  an  editor 

11:12-14.  ^  J 

dominated  by  the  spirit  and  teachings  of  the  book  of 

Deuteronomy. 

1  Sam.  2:1-11;  4.  Still    later    additions    by    another    Deuteronomic 

13:1;  20:1 — 21:1;  ■* 

2  Sam. 21: 15-22;   editor  who  gathered  up  and  carefully  edited  various  frag- 
ments pertaining  to  the  history  of  earlier  times. 

5.  The  various  sources  incorporated  in  the  first  eleven 

chapters  of  the  first  book  of  Kings,  which  deal  with  the 

closing  days  of  David's  reign  and  the  entire  reign   of 

1  Kings  1:1—2:    Solomon;  viz.,  (a)  a  narrative  of  David's  last  days  which 

2a  ;2:  5-9, 13-46. 

perhaps   belonged   originally  in  the  books   of   Samuel  ; 

"ij—j^'io-'it-    (^)  a  "D0°k  of  the  acts  of  Solomon,"  probably  a  list  of 

20, 26-29.  court  annals  ;  (c)  records  drawn  from  the  archives  of  the 

7  ■  13 — 8: 13.  '    \  / 

3:I5c_I233'- l6"iii-5:   temple  compiled  by  the  priests;  {d)  a  pre-Deuteronomic 

14;  10:1-10;  11:  jjfe  0f  Solomon  ;  (e)  the  work  of  the  Deuteronomic  editor 

14-31.  '    •  ' 

2:10-12;  3:i4f-;  who  compiled  the  book,  supplied  the  "framework,"  and 

8:14-43,54-9:9;  r                               rr 

9:15-22;  11: 1-  added  much  else  from  his  own  hand;  (/)  the  work  of 

8:44-53.  the  post-exilic  editor,  controlled  by  priestly  influences, 

who  supplemented  the  book  with  various  materials 
intended  to  render  it  more  edifying  for  the  people  of  his 
own  day.2 

1  Chron.  10:1—  6.  The  Chronicler's  narrative  of  the  reigns  of  David 

2Chron.  10:19. 

and   Solomon   compiled  about   200  or  300  B.  C.     The 

spirit  and  tone  of  this  work  are  priestly,  its  interest  being 

especially  in  the  religious  institutions  and  the  law,     The 

E.g.,  1  Chron.        main  sources  of  this  narrative  were  (a)  the  present  books  of 

10:1-12 ;  11  :i-9;  v    '  r 

14:1-16.  Samuel  and  Kings,  or  possibly  a  midrash  of  these  books  ; 

I  Chron.  29:29;  2   {b)  a  collection  of  prophetic  writings  such  as  "the  his- 

tory of  Samuel  the  Seer,"  "the  history  of  Nathan  the 

2  For  the  analysis  of  the  books  of  Kings  see  the  commentaries  of  Kittel  (1900), 
Skinner  (1904),  and  Benzinger  (1899);  Wellhausen,  Die  Composition  des  Hexa- 
tenchs  und  der  historischen  Biicker  des  Allen  Testaments  (3d  ed.  1899),  pp.  266-302, 
359-61;  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.  1897), 
pp.   185-205;  C.  F.  Burney,  art.  "Kings,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol. 

II  (1899);  W.  R.  Smith  and  E.  Kautzsch,  art.  "Kings,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica, 
Vol.  II  (1901);  C.  F.  Burney,  Notes  on  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Books  of  Kings 
(1903),  pp-  ix-xix ;  Stade  and  Schwally,  The  Books  of  Kings  (Polychrome  Bible, 
1904). 


PROPHECY    AND    PROPHET1SM    DURING    THE    DAVIDIC    PERIOD       4 1 

prophet,"  "the  history  of  Gad  the  seer,"  "the  prophecy 

of  Ahijah  the  Shilonite,"  and  "the  visions  of  Iddo  the   1  Chron.  11:41*- 

seer;"  (c)  old    genealogical    and    official   lists;  (d)   the   £.*■•»  1  Chron. 
^,         ■  1     i  i-       •  ,  .,  15:16-24:29:10- 

Chronicler  s  own  editorial  contribution.3  30. 

§  46.  Constructive  Work. — It  is  important  to  make  use  of  these  later 
traditions,  and  to  this  end  it  is  suggested  that,  in  the  case  of  each  of 
these  collections  or  documents,  indicated  in  §45,  the  student  — 

1.  Secure  from  some  authority  the  actual  Scripture  material  which 
scholars  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  included  in  it. 

2.  Consider  the  various  points  which  are  thought  to  be  character- 
istic of  it. 

3.  Study  closely  the  times  in  which  it  is  claimed  to  have  had  its 
origin,  and  the  important  ideas  of  those  times. 

4.  Note  the  "traditions"  given  concerning  these  early  times  which 
form  the  basis  of  this  study,  and  distinguish  the  sympathies  and  antipa- 
thies which  have  been  transferred  from  the  later  period. 

5.  Sum  up  briefly  the  essential  events  and  ideas  which,  after  due 
allowance  has  been  made  for  such  transference,  may  fairly  be  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  period  described. 

§  47.  Monumental  Sources  illustrating  the  history  of  this  period 
include,  among  other  material  : 

1.  The  inscriptions  of  contemporary  kings  of  Assyria,  showing  that 
Assyria's  energies  were  occupied  in  other  directions,  so  that  the 
Hebrews  were  left  free  to  expand  their  territory  and  enlarge  their 
influence  under  David  and  Solomon. 

See  G.  S.GoODSPEED,  A  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  (1902),  pp.  178- 
84  ;  McC'JRDY,  History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,  Vol.1  (1894),  pp.  219-23 ;  Paton, 
Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (1901),  pp.  1 76-9 1 ;  Rogers,  A  History  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria,  Vol.  II  (1900),  pp.  35-45  ;  WlNCKLER,  Geschichte  Babyloniens  und 
Assyriens  (1892),  pp.  1 76-8 1 ;  Idem,  Die  Keilinschriflen  und  das  Alte  Testament, 
3d  ed.,  Vol.  I  (1902),  pp.  38L  ;  Tiele,  Babylonisch-assyrische  Geschichte  (1886), 
pp.  167,  178. 

2.  The  contemporary  Egyptian  records,  showing  that  Egypt  was 
paralyzed  by  internal  struggles  for  supremacy,  thus  interposing  no 
obstacle  to  the  rapid  development  of  Israel. 

3 On  the  sources  of  Chronicles  see:  Kittel,  Die  Biicher  der  Chronik  ("Hand- 
kommentar  z.  A.  T.,"  1902) ;  Benzinger,  Die  Biicher  der  Chronik  ("  Kurzer  Hand- 
Commentar  z.  A.  T.,"  1901);  Barnes,  The  Books  of  Chronicles  (Cambridge  Bible; 
1899);  Kittel,  The  Books  of  Chronicles  in  Hebrew  (Polychrome  Bible,  1895); 
Francis  Brown,  art.  "Chronicles."  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  I  (1898); 
Driver,  art.  "  Chronicles,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  Vol.  1(1899);  Driver,  Introduction, 
etc.,  pp.  516-40. 


42  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

See  Maspero,  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations  (1896),  pp.  756-72;  Ed.  Meyer, 
Geschichtt  des  Alterthums,  Vol.  I  (1884),  pp.  380-82;  Wiedemann,  Aegypiische 
Geschichte  (1884),  pp.  527-42;  Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt,  Vol.  VI  (1902),  pp.  33-60. 

§  48.  Constructive  Study. — Prepare  a  brief  statement  of  the  essential 
facts  in  the  history  of  Assyria  and  Egypt  during  this  period,  with 
especial  reference  to  their  bearing  on  the  life  and  thought  of  Israel. 

§49.  Study  the  Institutions  expressive  of  religious  thought  as  they 
existed  in  this  period,  in  general  (see  my  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old 
Testament  [1905],  §§  15,  16),  and  in  particular,  viz.: 

1.  The  Priest;  see  Priestly  Element,  §§59-61. 

2.  The  Place  of  Worship,  §§  73,  74. 

3.  Sacrifice,  §§  83,  84. 

4.  Feasts,  §§  96,  97. 

5.  The  Sabbath,  §§  108,  109. 

6.  The  Clean  and  Unclean,  §§  122,  123. 

7.  Prayer,  §137,  1. 

8.  The  Vow,  §  140,  1. 

9.  Blessings  and  Cursings,  §  143,  1. 

10.  The  Ban,  §  146,  1. 

11.  The  Oath,  §  149,  1. 

12.  The  Fast,  §  152,  1. 

13.  Consultation  with  the  Deity  through  Oracles,  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  the  Ephod,  and  the  Lot,  §  155,  1. 

14.  Consultation  with  the  Deity  through  Magic,  Divination,  Sor- 
cery, and  Witchcraft,  §  158,  1. 

15.  Mourning  Customs,  §  161,  1. 

16.  Circumcision,  §  164,  1. 

From  the  above  materials  select  only  such  as  belong  to  the  par- 
ticular period  under  consideration  here. 

§  50.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Non-Prophetic  Religious  Sentiment  of 
the  Times. —  Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  indicated  in  §49,  formulate 
a  general  statement  which  will  characterize  the  non-prophetic  religious 
sentiment  of  the  times  in  respect  to  — 

1.  Its  purity  from  superstition. 

2.  Its  stage  of  advancement. 

3.  Its  simplicity  or  complexity. 

4.  Its  adaptation  to  agricultural  life. 

5.  The  presence  of  elements  approved  or  disapproved  by  the  con- 
temporary or  later  prophets. 

6.  The  presence  of  elements  common  to  other  Semitic  religions. 


PROPHECY    AND    PROPHETISM    DURING    THE    DAVIDIC    PERIOD       43 

7.  The  presence  of  elements  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  religion. 

8.  The  relative  importance  of  the  religious  and  moral  elements. 
§51.    Survey  Rapidly  the  Great  Characters  and  Events 

of  this  period,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining,  in  the  case  of 
each,  the  particular  religious  significance  which  it  must 
have  suggested  to  the  people  of  those  days,  viz.: 

1.  The  life  and  judgeship  of  Samuel  as  an  example  of   1  Sam.  3:1—4:1 ; 

7*1 — 12  '  25    CtC 

unimpeachable  integrity. 

2.  The  founding  of  the  kingdom  as  an  evidence  of  1  Sam. 8:4— 11:15. 
the  growing  consciousness  of  unity  among  the  clans. 

3.  The  reign  of  Saul,  with  its  constant  wars,  the  per-   1  Sam.  13:1  — 
secution  of  David,  the  friendship  of  David  and  Jonathan, 

and  the  final  overthrow  at  Mount  Gilboa. 

4.  The  reign  of  David,  at  first  in  Judah,  then  over  all   a  Sam.  a  :i— 

•r,.,,  1  .  •  1  r  ■,       l  Kings  a  :n. 

Israel,  with  the  resulting  wide  extension  of  territory  and 
great  increase  of  wealth  and  power. 

5.  The  significance  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  a  Sam.  5:6-16. 
its  establishment  as  the  national  capital. 

6.  The  many  wars  of  David,  with   almost  uninter-   aSam.  5:17-35; 

7:1 ;  8 :i-i4J  10: 

rupted  victory,  as  an  evidence  of  Jehovah's  favor  and      1-19,  etc. 
power. 

7.  The  reign  of  Solomon,  with  all  its  wealth,  pomp,   iKings  2:1a— n: 

43. 
and  magnificence,  and  the  corresponding  deterioration 

of  national  vigor  and  virtue. 

8.  The  erection  of  the  temple  and  its  significance  in   1  Kings 6:1-38. 
the  development  of  Hebrew  worship. 

9.  The  relations  of  Israel  with  the  outside  world ; 

e.  sr.,    the    hostility    with    the    Philistines,    Ammonites,  a  Sam.  5:17-25; 

6  '  J  8:1-14:10:1-19; 

Amalekites,  etc.;  the  treaties  with  Phoenicia  under  David      5:"*-; »  Kings 

3:1;  5: xft;  7: 
and  Solomon  ;  the  treaty  with  Egypt  in  Solomon  s  reign  ;      i3f.  ;    g:a6ff.; 

and  Solomon's  general  attitude  toward  foreign  peoples. 

10.  The    internal    relations    of    Israel    during    this 

period;  e.  ?.,  the  dissatisfaction  occasioned  by  the  injus-   1  Sam.  2:11-17; 
r  A  7:7;  8:1-5;  13: 

tice  and  oppression  of  Eli's  sons  and  of  Samuel  s  sons;      5a.,  19-22;  19: 

the  absolute  inability  to  resent  Philistine  oppression  in      a  Sam.  3/- 

,,  .    .  ,  ...  ,  4:12;    1  Kings 

certain  periods  of    Samuels  activity;    the  civil  war  be-      1:5-53; 3:13-25; 

r  ,  ,.    .  4:1-28:5:13-18; 

tween   Saul   and   David;    the   existence   of  two  distinct      9:15-03;  11:26- 


governments  for  seven  years  after  the  death  of  Saul ;  the 
revolts  of  Absalom  and  Shimei;  the  influence  of  Joab; 
the  conspiracy  of  Adonijah  ;  the  organization  of  the  king- 


40. 


44  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

i  Kings  5:13-16;   dom  under  Solomon;  the  existence  of  a  standing  army; 
4o;I5i22?4. "         the   exaction    of    forced    labor   for  Solomon's  building 
operations;  the  flight  of  Jeroboam  ;  the  despotic  charac- 
ter of  Solomon. 

In  doing  this  work  bear  in  mind  the  suggestions 
made  at  the  close  of  §  37. 

On  this  period  of  Hebrew  history  see:  Ewald,  History  of 
Israel,  Vol.  Ill ;  WellhaUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel, 
pp.  448-56;  KlTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  103-96; 
Kent,  A  History  of  the  Hebrew  People,  Vol.  I,  pp.  113-206;  Cor- 
NILL,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  pp.  56-95 ;  Ottley,  A  Short 
History  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Roman  Period,  pp.  120-57  ;  Wade,  Old 
Testament  History,  pp  213-31 1;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testament 
History,  pp.  106-76;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
197-343;  GUTHE,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp.  68-128. 

Also  the  various  articles  in  Encyclopaedias  and  Bible  Diction- 
aries on  "Samuel,"  "Saul,"  "David,"  "Jonathan,"  "Solomon,"  etc. 

§52.  Constructive  Study. —  Consider  now  the  religious  progress 
indicated  by  these  lives  and  events,  and  formulate  the  same  in  a  series 
of  propositions  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  The  nation's  conception  of  Jehovah. 

2.  The  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel. 

3.  The  existence  of  other  gods  than  Jehovah. 

4.  Faith  in  the  power  of  Jehovah  to  deliver. 

5.  Israel's  conception  of  its  own  future. 

6.  Israel's  attitude  toward  other  peoples. 

7.  The  reward  of  righteousness. 

8.  The  consequences  of  sin. 

9.  The  standard  of  conduct. 

10.  The  average  state  of  morals  and  religion. 

11.  The  religious  aspects  of  the  monarchy. 

12.  The  character  of  David. 

§  53.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Prophet  and  Prophetic 

Work. —  Study  the  more  important    instances  in  which 

the  prophet  appears  or  reference  is  made  to  his  work,  viz.: 

1  Sam.  9:6ft.,  20.  1.  The    reputation    and    influence    of    Samuel    as    a 

"seer,"  or  soothsayer. 

1  Sam.  10:9-13;  2.  The  relation  of  Saul  to  the  prophets,  and  his  own 

16:14 ff.  ...  ,  ,      .  /-,       •  j      ■     ,i  • 

participation  in  the  prophetic  spirit.     Consider  in  this 

connection  the  significance  of  the  "evil  spirit"  which 

troubled  Saul. 


PROPHECY    AND    PROPHETISM    DURING    THE    DAVIDIC    PERIOD       45 

3.  The  higher  work  of  Samuel  as  a  teacher  of  right-   1  Sam.  12:1-5:15: 

,  ,,       ,       .  . ,  .        ,     ,,  .  1-35;  16:1-13. 

eousness  and  the  dominant  councilor  in  national  affairs. 

4.  The  story  of  the  witch  of  Endor,  and  the  insight   1  Sam.  28:3-25. 
it  affords  into  current  conceptions  of  religion. 

5.  The  careers  of  Nathan  and  Gad,  their  relation  to   1  Sam.  22:5;  2 

the    king,    their    political    influence,  and    their    fearless      i:ff.; 34:11*6.; 9 

Kings,  chap.  1. 
utterance. 

6.  The   prophetic  guilds,  their   relation   to  Samuel,   iSam.ioisff.  ;ig: 
the  ecstatic  and  fanatical  character  of  their  work,  their 
resemblance  to  the  modern  dervish,  their  communal  life, 

their  political  influence,  and  their  significance  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  original  Jehovah  religion  and  opponents 
of  all  Canaanitish  innovations. 

7.  The  relation  of  David  to  the  prophets,  as  seen  in 

the  friendly  counsel  given   him  by  Gad   when  Saul  was  iSam.  22:5. 

seeking  to  kill  him;   in  his  attitude  when   rebuked  by  2 Sam.  12:1-15. 

Nathan;  in  his  willingness  to  surrender  the  privilege  of  2  Sam. 7:1-17. 
building  the  temple  to  his  successor  in  accordance  with 

Nathan's  word  ;   in  the  part  played  by  Nathan  in  deter-  1  Kings  chap.  1. 

mining  the  choice  of  David's  successor;   in  his  submis-  2  Sam.  24:11.  ff. 
sion   to   the   rebuke  of   Gad  upon  the  occasion  of   the 
census  ;  and  in  his  spirit  and  character  in  general. 

8.  The  attitude  of  Solomon  toward  the  prophets,  as  1  Kings  1:8, 10-27, 
inferred  from  the  part  taken  by  Nathan  in  securing  the      f: xif.;A ii':l-\', 
throne   for  him  ;   from  the  autocratic  character  of  this      *9  39' 
king;  from  his  tolerance  of  non-Israelitish  religions  and 

his  treaties  and  marriages  with  several  pagan  peoples ; 
and  from  the  attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  the  disrup- 
tion under  his  successor. 

§  54.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Principal  Prophetic  Ideas  prevalent 
during  this  period.  In  the  light  of  the  various  sources  of  information 
previously  cited  —  viz.,  (1)  contemporaneous  Hebrew  literature  (§§43, 
44);  (2)  later  Hebrew  literature  (§§45,  46);  (3)  monumental  literature 
(§§47,48);  (4)  the  religious  institutions  found  existing  during  this 
period  (§§49,  50);  (5)  the  great  characters  and  events,  as  distinguished 
from  the  history  of  them  prepared  in  later  times  (§§51,  52);  (6)  the 
character  of  the  prophets  and  their  methods  of  work  (§53) — let  us 
endeavor  to  formulate  the  contribution  of  the  prophets  to  the  religious 
ideas  entertained  by  their  contemporaries  : 


46  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

i.  As  relating  to  God  and  the  supernatural  world. —  (a)  What  was 
the  conception  of  Jehovah  prevalent  among  the  people  at  large  ? 
Does  this  popular  idea  of  God  show  any  advance  upon  the  correspond- 
ing idea  in  the  previous  period  ?  What  phases  of  the  divine  activity 
were  especially  impressed  upon  the  popular  consciousness?  Was 
Jehovah  looked  upon  as  the  only  God  ?  What  was  the  significance  of 
the  use  of  a  special,  proper  name  —  viz.  Jehovah — for  God?  What 
was  the  attitude  of  the  people  toward  the  gods  of  other  nations? 
What  was  the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  these  foreign  gods  ?  What  was 
the  significance  of  the  ban  ?  Did  the  lives  and  teachings  of  the 
prophets  tend  to  change  the  conception  of  Jehovah  in  any  important 
respects  ?  What  does  the  existence  of  a  class  of  prophets  and  seers  in 
itself  imply  as  to  the  relation  of  God  to  man  ?  How  was  the  idea  of 
God  related,  on  the  one  hand  to  the  development  and  organization  of 
the  national  spirit,  and  on  the  other  to  the  appearance  of  the  prophets  in 
connection  with  this  national  life  ?  Upon  what  phases  of  the  divine 
character  did  the  prophets  lay  emphasis  ?  (b)  Is  there  any  evidence 
that  the  people  or  the  prophets  of  this  period  believed  in  the  existence 
and  manifestation  of  angels  ?  If  so,  what  was  the  function  of  such 
beings  and  their  relation  to  God  ?  Were  there  any  other  superhuman 
beings  who  had  power  over  human  life  and  fortune  ?  (c)  What  was 
the  opinion  of  the  times  concerning  spirits  ?  Were  these  spirits 
always  evil  ?  Was  there  any  connection  between  them  and  the  spirits 
of  departed  ancestors  ?  What  was  the  feeling  of  the  times  toward 
sorcery,  soothsaying,  witchcraft,  and  necromancy?  Did  the  prophets 
of  the  period  oppose  such  practices?  Were  these  customs  in  them- 
selves inconsistent  with  true  prophecy?     If  so,  why? 

2.  As  relating  to  man. —  (a)  Did  any  new  teaching  appear  in  this 
period  concerning  the  origin  of  man,  his  relation  to  God,  his  relation 
to  the  animal  world,  and  his  future  place  in  the  world-economy?  Was 
the  estimate  of  the  value  of  human  life  a  high  one  ?  (b)  What  were 
the  existing  ideas  of  sin  and  guilt,  and  how  were  they  related  to  the 
existing  idea  of  God  ?  Did  the  contemporaneous  prophets  impart  any 
new  meaning  to  the  word  sin  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  sin  upon  man's 
relation  to  God  and  upon  God's  attitude  toward  man  ?  Was  sin  con- 
ceived of  by  the  prophets  as  primarily  a  violation  of  ceremonial  or 
ethical  laws  ?  What  sins  were  most  denounced  by  the  prophets  of  these 
times  ?  (c)  How  was  atonement  made  for  sin  ?  Was  there  any 
progress  in  this  respect  beyond  the  ideas  of  the  previous  period  ? 
What  is  the  significance  in  this  connection  of  the  practice  of  blood- 


PROPHECY    AND    PROPHETISM    DURING    THE    DAVIDIC    PERIOD       47 

revenge  ?  How  did  the  teachings  of  the  prophets  affect  the  situation  ? 
(d)  What  was  the  view  of  death  and  the  future  world  ?  Was  there  any 
relation  between  the  idea  of  sin  and  that  of  death  ?  How  did  the 
beliefs  concerning  death  and  the  future  influence  the  present  life  ? 

3.  As  relating  to  Israel's  future. —  What  was  the  influence  of  Israel's 
unification  into  a  nation  upon  the  conception  of  her  future  ?  What 
especially  important  steps  were  taken  in  this  period  in  the  progress  of 
the  idea  of  Israel's  future?  How  did  the  splendor  and  power  of 
David  and  Solomon  influence  the  development  of  the  idea?  How  did 
the  establishment  of  Jerusalem  as  the  national  capital  and  the  building 
of  the  temple  there  affect  the  idea  ?  Was  there  yet  any  teaching  con- 
cerning the  Messiah  ?  What  was  the  significance  of  prophecy  in 
relation  to  the  nation's  future  ?  Was  there  any  teaching  concerning  the 
future  relation  of  Israel  to  the  outside  nations  ?  Was  there  any  doctrine 
of  the  "Day  of  Jehovah"? 

4.  As  relating  to  ethical  standards  and  worship. — (a)  Was  the  stand- 
ard of  morality  prevailing  in  these  times  high  or  low?  Was  there  any 
distinction  between  national  and  individual  morality?  Were  morals 
and  religion  dissociated  and  independent  of  each  other,  or  were  they 
inseparably  connected  ?  Was  the  prophetic  standard  of  ethics  a  uni- 
formly high  one  ?  Did  the  prophets  contribute  anything  to  the  current 
idea  of  righteousness  ?  Did  they  emphasize  either  ethics  or  religion, 
the  one  more  than  the  other  ?  Is  there  any  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  an  attitude  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  worshipers  of  Jehovah  ?  If  so, 
how  was  it  manifested  ?  (6)  Was  the  idea  of  a  covenant-relationship 
between  Jehovah  and  Israel  modified  or  enriched  in  any  way?  What 
demands  did  it  make  upon  the  two  parties  to  the  covenant  ?  (V)  What 
was  the  influence  of  the  building  of  the  temple  upon  the  ideas  of  wor- 
ship ?  Was  the  worship  of  the  period  in  general  purer  and  more  spir- 
itual than  heretofore,  or  had  it  deteriorated  ?  What  was  the  effect  of 
continued  contact  with  Baalism,  and  other  worships  tolerated  by  Solo- 
mon ?  Did  the  prophets  of  the  period  take  any  position  with  refer- 
ence to  the  nature  and  conduct  of  worship?  What  was  their  attitude 
toward  the  building  of  the  temple,  the  offering  of  sacrifice  at  the  local 
shrines,  etc.?    Were  they  deeply  interested  in  these  things  ? 

§55.   Literature  to  be  Consulted. 

On  the  prophets  and  prophecy  of  this  period  see:  Schultz,  Old  Testament 
Theology  (1868,  5th  ed.  1896,  transl.  1892),  Vol.  I,  pp.  151-57;  Kuenen,  The 
Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel  (1875,  transl.  1877),  pp.  3691.,  3921.,  564-67;  W.  R. 
Smith,  The  Prophets  of Israel (1882, new  ed.  1895),  pp.  391  f.;  Orelli.C/o'  Testament 


48  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Prophecy  (1882,  transl.  1885),  pp.  148-57;  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy  (1886),  pp. 
121-52;  Piepenbring,  The  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament  (1886,  transl.  1893),  pp. 
11-20;  Montefiore,  The  Religion  of the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892),  pp.  72-83;  Cornill, 
The  Prophets  of  Israel  (1894,  transl.  3d  ed.  189S),  pp.  1-15  ;  Budde,  Religion  of  Israel 
to  the  Exile  (1899),  pp.  88-1 1 1  ;  S.  A.  Cook,  "Notes  on  the  Composition  of  2  Samuel," 
American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVI  (1900),  pp.  145-77  ; 
White,  art.  "Nathan,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II  (1900); 
Stenning,  art.  "Samuel,"  ibid.,  Vol.  IV  (1902);  Davidson,  art.  "Prophecy  and 
Prophets,"  ibid.,  Vol.  IV  (1902),  pp.  109  f . ;  S.  A.  COOK,  art.  "Nathan,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica,  Vol.  HI  (1902);  Cheyne,  art.  "Prophetic  Literature,"  §§4,  5,  ibid.;  Stade, 
art.  "Samuel,"  ibid.,  Vol.  IV  (1903);  Davidson^  Old  Testament  Prophecy  (1904), 
pp.  40-61 ;  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet  (1905),  pp.  161-76. 

Maybaum,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israelilischen  Prophetenthums  (18S3),  pp.  30-59 ; 
Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (1893,  2d  ed.  1899),  §5; 
Marti,  Geschichle  der  israelitischen  Religion  (3d  ed.  1897),  pp.  79-91 ;  Kraetzschmar, 
Prophet  und  Seher  im  alien  Israel  (1901);  KURTZ,  Zur  Psychologie  der  vorexilischen 
Prophetic  in  Israel  (1904). 

Also  the  commentaries  on  Samuel  and  Kings  cited  in  notes  1  and  2,  pp.  39,  40. 

On  the  so-called  "schools  of  the  prophets"  see  especially:  Kuenen,  The 
Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,  pp.  46  ff.;  L.  W.  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet,  pp. 
42-72;  Kautzsch  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  V,  pp.  652  ff.; 
Kraetzschmar,  Prophet  und  Seher  im  alien  Israel;  Kittel,  Prophetie  und  Weis- 
sagung;  G.  Rothstein,  "Herkunft  und  urspriingliches  Wesen  der  israelitischen 
Prophetie,"  Studierstube,  1905,  pp.  323-331,  and  the  list  of  literature  on  p.  81. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  BACKGROUND  OF  PROPHECY  AND  PROPHETISM  IN  THE  NORTHERN 

KINGDOM. 

§  56.  The  Scope  of  this  Period  is  that  of  the  Northern  as  distinguished 
from  the  Southern  kingdom.  It  commences  with  the  revolt  of  the 
Northern  tribes  under  Jeroboam  I.  (933  B.  C),  an  event  incited  by  the 
prophets;  and  closes  with  the  fall  of  Samaria  (721  B.  C),  an  event 
foretold  by  the  prophets  in  considerable  minuteness.  This  period 
includes : 

1.  The  more  or  less  successful  efforts  of  Northern  Israel  to  establish 
herself  in  spite  of  wars  with  Judah  (933-887  B.  C),  with  Syria  (890-790 
B.  C),  and  with  Assyria  (854-721  B.  C). 

2.  Three  successive  and  prolonged  struggles:  (1)  of  Jeroboam 
I.  and  his  successors  against  misfortune  of  every  kind,  intensified  by 
disorganization  and  confusion,  until  Omri  builds  Samaria  and  makes  it 
the  central  and  controlling  factor  in  the  kingdom  (933-885  B.  C.) ; 
(2)  of  Omri's  dynasty  and  that  of  Jehu,  against  the  prophets  Elijah, 
Elisha,  and  their  followers  who  were  unwilling  that  the  worship  of 
Jehovah  should  be  contaminated  by  the  impurities  of  Baalism  (885- 
784);  (3)  of  Jeroboam  II.  and  his  successors,  against  Assyria  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  against  the  prophets  Amos,  Hosea,  and 
Isaiah,  who  recognized  in  Assyria  the  instrument  in  Jehovah's  hands 
for  Israel's  punishment  and  destruction  (784-721  B.  C). 

3.  Three  startling  and  indeed  significant  movements  of  prophetic 
character,  each  seemingly  revolutionary,  but  each,  when  viewed  closely, 
passing  onward  into  the  next,  the  three  together  constituting  the  real 
foundations  of  prophecy;  viz.,  (1)  the  prophetic  revolt  from  despotism 
and  priest-control  at  the  time  of  Solomon's  death  which  alone  fur- 
nished opportunity  for  the  freedom  demanded  for  prophetic  growth ; 
(2)  the  assumption  by  the  prophets  of  a  power  superior  to  that  of 
kings,  in  their  determined  effort  to  rid  themselves  of  the  injurious 
influence  of  outside  religious  cults;  and  (3)  the  transition,  made  neces- 
sary by  the  situation,  from  the  primitive  methods  and  ideas  of  the 
earliest  prophets,  to  the  more  permanent  and  efficient  work  of  the 
writing  prophets,  of  whom  Amos  was,  perhaps,  the  first. 

4.  Three  contests  of  great  importance  in  world -history ;  (1)  the 
battle  of  Karkar,  854  B.  C,  in  which  Israel's  military  forces  (in  union 

49 


50  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

with  the  armies  of  other  nations)  first  met  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Assyria;  (2)  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  campaign  (735  B.  C.)  against  Judah, 
the  end  of  which  was  the  fall  of  Damascus  (732  B.  C.) ;  (3)  the  siege 
of  Samaria  and  its  final  destruction  in  721  B.  C. 

§57.  The  Character  of  the  Period  has  been  partly  indicated  in  the 
statement  of  its  scope  (§56).  If  we  attempt  to  think  of  it  as  a  whole, 
covering  two  centuries  and  more,  we  are  able,  in  spite  of  the  great 
variety  which  it  presents,  to  distinguish  certain  predominant  features : 

1.  There  is  almost  always  to  be  noted  a  condition  of  disorganiza- 
tion and  confusion  which  very  frequently  becomes  anarchy.  At  no 
time  does  the  government  seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  stable.  This 
was  due  in  part,  at  least,  to  the  prevalence  of  a  democratic  spirit,  a 
spirit  without  which  prophecy  could  not  have  been  developed.  While 
this  is  the  home  situation,  the  foreign  relations  are  even  worse,  resulting 
in  continuous  wars  with  one  or  another  of  the  outside  powers  (see  §56). 

2.  It  is  evidently  a  period  during  the  progress  of  which  a  great 
transition  is  taking  place,  e.g.,  from  agricultural  life  and  residence  in 
villages,  to  military  life  and  residence  in  cities — a  change  due  to  the 
warlike  character  of  the  times.  Little  of  the  pastoral  life  remains. 
Mercantile  ideas  and  influences  prevail.  This  has  come  about  in  large 
measure  because  of  the  wars.  And  with  this  change  have  come  great 
wealth,  and,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel  and  of 
Uzziah  in  Judah,  great  prosperity.  These  are  Israel's  days  of  greatest 
splendor,  and  are  due,  in  large  measure,  to  the  peace  which  followed 
the  Syrian  wars. 

3.  In  these  years  Israel  is  in  the  fullest  sense  an  independent  world- 
power — one  of  the  lesser  kind,  in  contest  with  "the  restless  aggressive- 
ness of  the  gigantic  empire  of  Assyria."  This  was  in  accordance  with 
the  divine  plan,  which  involved  a  close  contact  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
for  educational  purposes,  with  all  the  great  world-powers  of  antiquity. 
Israel  never  was  an  isolated  nation,  and  never  was  intended  to  be,  until 
long  after  the  Babylonian  exile.  As  a  part  of  this  general  movement 
there  came  to  Israel  a  closer  intercourse  with  foreign  nations.  This 
brought  about  a  widening  of  her  intellectual  horizon,  a  stronger 
and  deeper  sense  on  the  part  of  the  true  leaders,  of  her  own  indi- 
viduality, and  of  her  mission  to  the  world.  For  in  proportion  as  she 
lost  her  place  as  a  nation,  in  that  proportion  was  her  great  vocation 
realized.  With  all  the  bad  that  came  from  intimacy  with  these  outside 
nations,  there  came  much  that  was  good.  This  good,  while  not  suffi- 
cient to  save  Northern  Israel  from  destruction,  was  handed  down  in 
various  ways  to  the  great  advantage  of  posterity. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  5 1 

4.  The  religious  zeal  of  the  times  was  marked  ;  but  while  outwardly 
flourishing,  there  was  corruption  within.  Tainted  with  impurity, 
abounding  in  pagan  customs,  given  over  to  magic,  necromancy,  and 
superstitious  rites  of  every  kind,  the  more  rigidly  it  was  observed,  the 
less  of  true  religion  really  existed.  The  immorality  of  the  period  was 
most  flagrant;  shameless  sensuality  prevailed  everywhere.  Violence 
and  robbery,  murder  and  corruption  were  rampant. 

5.  It  is,  however,  the  period  of  all  periods  in  Israelitish  history, 
in  which  the  prophet  has  largest  place.  It  is  true  that  he  is  always  in 
opposition  to  the  governing  power;  but  his  opposition  is  so  strong 
that  it  means  a  large  measure  of  control.  He  was  Israel's  adviser,  and 
had  his  guidance  been  freely  accepted  the  pages  of  history  would  have 
told  a  far  different  story.  At  the  same  time,  these  changes  in  government 
and  these  many  wars  with  hostile  neighbors,  this  transition  in  method 
of  life,  and  the  opportunities  afforded  by  increased  wealth,  this  position 
as  a  world-power  in  contact  with  other  world-powers;  even  this  false 
religious  zeal,  and  the  immoral  activity  of  the  times  —  all  this  furnishes 
an  experience,  an  object  lesson,  a  text  for  prophetic  appeal  and  for  the 
announcement  of  divine  law,  which  was  to  educate  some  of  those  who 
lived  then,  and  more  of  those  who  were  to  follow. 

§  58.  The  Contemporaneous  Literary  Work  of  this  period  is  very  large 
in  quantity,  and  of  the  highest  value.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  age  in  which 
Israel  cornes  to  literary  consciousness.  Our  greatest  difficulty  lies  in 
the  abundance  and  the  richness  of  this  material.  The  following  may 
be  regarded  as  a  rough  catalogue  of  the  most  important  prophetic 
material.  Distinction  is  to  be  made  between  the  literature  produced 
in  Northern  Israel,  and  that  coming  from  Judah.  For  the  sake  of  con- 
venience we  may  arrange  this  material  in  three  groups: 

A.  Narrative  Literature,  produced  in  this  period,  which  relates  to 
times  preceding  933  B.  C.  These  works  are  of  especial  interest  in  that 
their  spirit  and  purpose  belong  to  the  times  under  consideration. 
They  were  written  to  meet  the  problems  of  these  times;  and,  present- 
ing as  they  do  the  sympathies  and  antipathies  of  the  period,  they  form 
a  true  expression  of  the  inner  thought.     Here  may  be  placed : 

1 .     The  great  prophetic  narrative  of  Judah,  J.z     This  narrative  begins 

'0611.2:43—4:25;  7  :  1-5,  7-IO,  12,  173,  22  f. ;  8  :  23,  30,  6-12,  133,  20  f.J  18;  I  — 
20:38;  24:1-67;  29:1-14,  31-35;  30:3^-16,  223-310,  34-385,  39,  40a,  40^-43; 
31  :  I,  17,  180,  25,  27,  31,  43/,  46,  48-50;  38  :  I-30;  39  : 1-23;  43  : 1— 45  :  la;  48  :  13- 
19;  49:1^-27;  Exod.  1  :8-l2,  14a/  4:1-16;  5:5 — 6:1;  8:1-4,8-150,20 — 9:7; 
10:1-11;  11:4-8;  12:29-34,37-39;  34:1-28;  Numb.  22  :  33-50,  5^-7,  II,  17  f.,  22- 
360,  39  ;  24  : 1-25 ;  etc.     See  also  Appendix  D. 


52  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

with  an  account  of  creation  and  the  fall  of  man,  passes  rapidly 
over  the  antediluvian  period,  dwells  a  little  while  upon  the  deluge  and 
the  confusion  of  tongues,  and  gives  the  biographies  of  the  patriarchs 
in  some  detail.  Some  of  the  patriarchal  episodes  most  fully  described 
are  the  overthrow  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  the  selection  of  a  wife  for 
Isaac,  Jacob's  sojourn  with  Laban,  Judah's  treatment  of  Tamar,  the  case 
of  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife,  the  visits  of  Joseph's  brethren  to  Egypt 
in  search  of  corn,  and  Jacob's  blessing.  The  residence  and  bondage 
in  Egypt  are  related  together  with  the  deliverance  and  exodus.  The 
narrative  then  follows  the  history  on  to  Sinai  and  incorporates  at  this 
point  the  smaller  Book  of  the  Covenant.  In  the  further  recital  of  the 
history  especial  consideration  is  given  to  the  Balaam  incident,  the  fall 
of  Jericho,  the  capture  of  Ai,  and  Joshua's  relief  of  Gibeon. 

This  document  is  characterized  by :  (a)  a  charming  narrative  style, 
{b)  its  naive,  anthropomorphic  conception  of  God,  {c)  the  use  of  the 
name  Jehovah,  (d)  the  intensely  ethical  and  theological  spirit  of  the 
narrative,  (<?)  the  presence  within  it  of  duplicate  accounts  of  the  same 
event,  (/)  its  lack  of  chronological  indications  and,  (g)  a  deep  interest 
in  the  early  history  of  the  human  race. 

The  general  consensus  of  scholarly  opinion  is  that  while  J  contains 
much  material  coming  from  very  early  stages  of  Israel's  life,  it  assumed 
its  literarv  form  some  time  early  in  the  eighth  century,  or  late  in  the 
ninth  century  B.  C.  The  narrative  thus  reflects  the  ideas  of  the  Judean 
prophets  of  the  age  just  prior  to  Amos.  For  convenience  J  and  E  are 
treated  in  this  study  as  single  documents ;  it  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  a  truer  conception  is  that  they  include  within  themselves 
various  strata  of  growth  and  are  not  the  product  of  two  particular 
individuals,  but  rather  of  two  schools  of  prophetic  writers.2 

2.  The  great  prophetic  narrative  of  Ephraim,  E.  The  first  traces  of 
this  narrative3  appear  in  Gen.,  chap.  15,  in  connection  with  the  promise 

2  On  the  limits,  contents,  characteristics,  date,  and  origin  of  I  see  especially: 
Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  97-109;  Driver, 
Introduction,  etc.,  pp.  1 16-25;  KUENEN,  The  Hexateuch,  pp.  138-63,  226-61;  DlLL- 
MANN,  Die  Biicher  Numeri,  Deuteronomium,  und  Josua,  pp.  622-33;  Holzinger, 
Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp.  72-173. 

3Gen.  15:1,  2,  5;  20:1-17;  21:8-21,22-27,31,32,34;  22:1-13,19;  25:27, 
29-34;  27  :7^_I4>  1 6-1 8a,  21-23,  30£-3ia,  35-4ia,-  31 :2,  4-16,  19-24,  26,  28-30,  32- 
42,47,51 — 32:2;  37:5-11,13^,  173,  18a,  19,  20,  22-25a,  28a~3i,  36;  40:1 — 41:30, 
32  f.,  35a,  c,  36a,  37-40;  42:8-26,29-37;  45:5a'-8,  15-18,  21^-27;  46:2-5;  48  :  20-22; 
Exod.  1:15 — 2:10;  18  :  12-27;  20: 1 — 23:31a/ Numb.  20:14-18;  21:4^-9;  22:40 — 
23  :26;  Deut.  33  : 1-25.     See  also  Appendix  D. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  53 

to  Abraham  of  a  great  posterity.  The  most  important  sections  of  it 
include  the  account  of  Abraham  and  Abimelech's  dealings  concerning 
Sarah;  the  stories  of  the  rejection  of  Hagar  and  her  son;  of  the  dis- 
pute concerning  the  well  at  Beersheba;  of  the  offering  up  of  Isaac;  of 
the  sale  of  Esau's  birthright;  of  Jacob's  success  in  securing  the  blessing 
intended  for  Esau;  of  Jacob's  return  from  Syria  to  his  own  land;  the 
narrative  of  Joseph's  dream;  of  his  going  down  to  Egypt;  of  the  course 
of  events  in  Egypt;  of  the  coming  of  Joseph's  brethren  and  their  father 
into  Egypt;  of  the  blessing  of  Joseph's  sons;  the  account  of  the  birth 
of  Moses;  the  advice  given  by  Jethro  to  Moses;  the  Decalogue  and  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant;  the  refusal  of  the  Edomites  to  permit  the  pas- 
sage of  Israel  through  the  land  of  Edom;  the  making  of  the  bronze 
serpent;  the  Balaam-oracles;  the  blessing  of  Moses.  There  is  in  addi- 
tion much  material  of  a  more  fragmentary  character  carrying  the  history 
on  through  the  conquest  of  Canaan. 

The  narrative  is,  in  general,  characterized  by  (a)  its  evident  interest 
in  archaeological  and  antiquarian  subjects;  (6)  its  representation  of 
Jehovah  as  revealing  his  will  through  dreams,  visions,  and  angels;  (c) 
its  marked  interest  in  Northern  Israel's  history  rather  than  that  of  the 
Southern  kingdom;  (d)  a  distinctly  didactic  or  prophetic  tone  and 
purpose;  (e)  the  use  of  the  word  Elohim,  instead  of  Jehovah,  as  the 
divine  name;  (/)  a  somewhat  careful  and  exact  chronological  arrange- 
ment of  material. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  E  is  of  northern  origin  and  that  it 
assumed  literary  form  at  a  time  subsequent  to  J,  perhaps  in  the  first 
half  of  the  eighth  century  B.  C.  It  is  thus  a  contemporaneous  record 
of  prophetic  ideals  in  Northern  Israel  in  the  generation  before  Amos.4 

3.    The  J  and  E  of  Judges? — These  sources  of  the  Book  of  Judges 

4  On  the  contents,  scope,  character,  date,  and  origin  of  the  E  narrative  see 
especially:  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  pp.  110-20; 
DRIVER,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  pp.  116-26;  Driver, 
The  Book  of  Genesis,  pp.  xi-xxi ;  Holzinger,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  173-228;  Kuenen,  The  Hexateuch,  pp.  138-73,  226-61;  DlLLMANN,  Die  Biicher 
Numeri,  Deuteronomium,  und  Josua,  pp.  615-22. 

sThe  following  passages  are  assigned  to  J  by  G.  F.  Moore  :  \:\b,  21.,  5-7,  10c, 
11-17,19-230,24-36;  2:10,5^,23;  3:2,5,6,16-270,28;  6:11-19,21-24,34;  7:1; 
7-9,  12-16,  20-22  ;  8 :4-2I,  24-27  ;  9:26-41 ;  13:2-25;  14 : 1-20;  15:1-19;  16:1-310, 
17:1,  5,  7-12;  18:1-14,17-30;  19:1-6;  9  f.,  12,  14-23,25-30;  20:1,3-8,  18 £.,  29, 
36-41,  44,  47;  21  : 1,  15-23;  and  the  following  to  E:  4:6-22;  6:33,  36-40;  9:1-25, 
42-55;  11:1,3-11,30-40;  12:1-6;  17:2-4,  7,  II;  18:2-4,  8f.,  15,  31  ;  19: 7 f.,  10, 
12  f.,  15. 


54  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

originated  during  the  first  or  second  century  of  this  period.  Whether 
or  not  they  formed  a  part  of  the  J  and  E  of  the  Hexateuch  cannot  be 
definitely  determined,  but  in  any  case  they  come  from  the  same  school 
of  prophetic  narrators,  and  show  the  light  in  which  these  interpreters 
of  history  looked  upon  events  and  movements  of  comparatively  recent 
times.6 

4.  The  earlier  Samuel  Narrative  (see  §  45,  1),  dealing  with  the 
history  of  the  times  of  Saul  and  David,  and  having  value  for  this  period 
because  the  writer's  purpose  and  point  of  view  appear  so  plainly  in  his 
selection  and  use  of  materials  and  in  the  general  attitude  assumed 
toward  these  great  leaders  of  former  times. 

5.  The  later  Samuel  Narrative  (see  §45,  2),  covering  the  same 
period  as  the  earlier  narrative,  but  reflecting  a  more  highly  developed 
stage  of  thought  and  feeling  and  characterized  by  a  distinctly  prophetic 
spirit. 

6.  The  various  narratives  and  documents  in  Kings  relating  to  David 
and  Solomon,  1  Kings,  chaps.  1-11.  Chaps.  1  and  2,  dealing  with 
the  last  acts  of  David,  really  belong  to  the  books  of  Samuel  and  express 
the  same  ideas  as  the  sources  of  Samuel.  Chaps.  3-1 1  include 
several  sources  (§45,  5),  among  the  earliest  of  which  are:  (a)  an  early 
life  of  Solomon,  the  purpose  of  which  seems  to  have  been  to  emphasize 
the  great  wisdom  and  power  of  Solomon,  and  (<£)  still  older  annalistic 
records  of  Solomon's  building  operations,  and  various  other  matters. 
These  are  of  interest  and  value  as  showing  the  thought  of  the  times 
concerning  the  life  and  work  of  Solomon.  The  pieces,  thus  included, 
represent  in  truest  fashion  not  only  (1)  the  general  purpose  and  spirit 
of  933-721  B.  C,  or  some  special  sub-period  in  these  two  centuries; 
but  also  (2)  a  definite  and  separate  development  of  prophetic  growth 
and  prophetic  literary  expression,  standing  between  the  earlier  work 
of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  and  the  later  activity  of  Amos  and  Hosea. 

§59.  Constructive  Study. — In  the  case  of  each  of  the  documents 
treated  in  §58  : 

1.  Ascertain  the  various  views  concerning  the  time  of  its  origin, 

6 On  the  sources  of  Judges  see  the  commentaries  of  G.  F.  Moore,  Budde  and 
Nowack,  and  also  Moore,  art.  "Judges,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  Konig,  art.  "Judges," 
Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Moore,  Judges  (Polychrome  Bible) ;  Stade 
"Zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  des  vordeuteronomischen  Richterbuches,"  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  I.  pp.  339-43;  Driver,  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (1897),  pp.  160-72;  Frankenberg,  Die  Composition 
des  deuteronomischen  Richterbuches  (1895) ;  Marquart,  Fundamente  der  israelitischen 
und  jiidischen  Geschichte  (1896). 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  55 

together  with  the  grounds  upon  which  its  assignment  to  this  period 
rests. 

2.  Separate  carefully  any  portions  which  may  fairly  be  regarded  as 
having  had  their  origin  later  than  721  B.  C.  and  indicate  the  reasons 
for  this  separation. 

3.  Try  to  determine  the  particular  portion  of  this  period  in  which 
the  piece  originated,  and  study  the  historical  environment  out  of  which 
it  came. 

4.  Endeavor  by  continuous  reading  of  each  document  by  itself  to 
secure  a  clear  conception  of  the  document  as  a  whole. 

§60.  The  Covenant  Code. —  (Exod.  20:23 — 23:33).  This  is  a  series  of 
laws  arranged  in  groups  of  five  and  representing  the  ideas  and  usages 
that  had  come  into  existence  and  received  general  acceptance  between 
the  days  of  Moses  and  some  time  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  centuries  B.  C. 
at  the  latest.  This  code  is  characterized  by  (a)  the  comparatively 
primitive  character  of  many  of  its  requirements ;  {b)  the  agricultural 
background  reflected  in  its  laws  ;  (V)  the  predominance  of  ethical  and 
secular  elements  in  the  legislation,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  ritualistic 
details ;  {d)  its  harmony  with  the  teachings  of  the  earlier  prophets. 

On  the  Covenant  Code  see  especially :  Briggs,  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch,  pp.  211-32;  Naumann,  "Der  Dekalog  und  das  sinaitische  Bundesbuch  im 
inneren  Zusammenhange  dargestellt,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  kirchliche  Wissenschaft  ttnd  kirchl. 
Leben,  Vol.  IX  (1888),  pp.  551-71;  Baentsch,  Das  Bundesbuch  (1892);  Roth- 
STEIN,  Das  Bundesbuch  und  die  religionsgeschichtliche  Entivicklung  Israels  (1888) ; 
Budde,  "  Bemerkungen  zum  Bundesbuch,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissen- 
schaft,Vo\.  XI,  pp.  99-1 1 4 ;  Kr aetzschmar,  Die  Bundesvorstellung  im  Alten  Testament 
(1896),  pp.  70-99;  Kuenen,  The  Hexateuch,  pp.  50  f.,  167,245;  W.  Staerk,  Das 
Deuteronomium  (1894),  pp.  32-57;  L.  B.  Paton,  "The  Original  Form  of  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant,"  fournal  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XII  (1893),  pp.  79~93 ;  Steuer- 
nagel,  "Der  jehovistische  Bericht  iiber  d.  Bundesschluss  am  Sinai,"  Theologische 
Studien  und Kritiken  (1899),  pp.  319  ff.;  G.  F.  Moore,  art.  "Exodus,"  §4,  Encyclo- 
pedia Biblica,  Vol.  II  (1901);  Cornill,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (1891),  pp. 
73~7S  '>  W.  R.  Harper,  The  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  (1905),  §§20,  169  ; 
Idem,  Amos  and  Hosea,  pp.  lxiv-ix ;  and  the  commentaries  of  Baentsch  and 
Holzinger  on  Exodus,  in  loc. 

§61.  Constructive  Study. — Take  up  the  Covenant  Code  and  consider 
in  general:  (1)  its  place  in  the  history  of  Hebrew  legislation;  (2)  the 
stage  of  civilization  reflected  in  its  social  and  religious  ideas;  (3)  its 
relation  on  the  one  hand  to  the  work  of  the  priests,  on  the  other  to 
that  of  the  prophets. 

§62.  B.  Narrative  Literature,  produced  in  this  period, 
which  describes  selected  features  of  the  period  —  in  other 


56  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

1  Kings  12:1-30,   words,  contemporaneous  history.     This  is  found  chiefly 
25, 28, 29;  14:      .        __ .  ,  T_ .  , 

25-28,30.  in  1  Kings,  chap.  12 — 2  Kings,  chap.  17.7 

1.  Old  material  in  1  Kings  12 :i — 14:18,  relating  to 
the  disruption  and  the  subsequent  history  of  the  North- 
ern kingdom,  coming  from  the  pen  of  a  Northern  writer. 
Note  that  he  places  all  the  blame  for  the  disruption 
upon  Rehoboam,  and  holds  the  conviction  that  the  right 
to  choose  their  king  is  a  prerogative  of  the  people. 

1  Kings,  chaps.  2.  Northern  or  Ephraitnite  stories  concerning  Elijah 

17-19  and  21.  .  ° 

and  his  work,  setting  tne  prophet  forth  as  the  representa- 
tive of  Jehovah  in  successful  opposition  to  the  policy  of 
a  wicked  king  and  the  sensuous  tendencies  of  a  corrupt 
people.  The  narratives  are  characterized  by  freshness 
and  vigor  and  directness  of  aim.  The  stories  are  marked 
by  unity  of  style  and  purpose  and  have  very  few  later 
accretions.  They  come  from  a  comparatively  early  time 
as  appears,  e.g.,  (a)  from  the  fact  that  they  do  not  oppose 
the  calf- worship  of  Jeroboam  II.  as  did  Hosea ;  (b)  they 
know  nothing  of  the  Deuteronomic  prohibition  of  local 
sanctuaries;  (c)  the  statement  in  1  Kings  19:3  that 
"Beersheba  belongeth  to  Judah."  On  the  other  hand 
the  stories  are  not  contemporaneous  with  the  events  they 
describe  and  do  not  purport  to  be  the  records  of  eyewit- 
nesses. They  may  with  reasonable  certainty  be  assigned 
to  the  period  about  800  B.  C. 

1  Kings,  chaps.  3.  Northern    or   Ephraimite    stories  of  the  Northern 
9:1—10:27.      '   kingdom,  characterized  by  a  more  favorable  estimate  of 

Ahab  than  that  prevalent  in  the  stories  concerning  Elijah, 
and  concerned  with  the  revolution  under  Jehu,  not  as 
though  coming  from  an  active  participant  and  sym- 
pathizer with  the  efforts  of  the  reforming  party,  but  rather 
from  an  outsider  without  any  special  prophetic  tendencies. 
Apart  from  a  few  later  accretions  these  stories  may  be 
assigned  to  the  same  general  period  as  the  foregoing. 

2  Kings  2: 1—8:  4.  Northern  stories  of  E  lis  ha  and  his  work. — In  these 

15;  13 :i4-2i. 

stories   Elisha   is   the  center   of  interest.     They  are   of 

7  For  the  analysis  of  the  Books  of  Kings  see  the  works  cited  in  §45,  note  2,  and 
also  Stade,  Akademische  Reden  und  Abhandlungen  (1899),  pp.  143-226;  Stade 
and  Schwally,  The  Books  of  Kings  (Polychrome  Bible,  1904);  Wellhausen, 
Die  Composition  des  Hexateuchs  und  der  histori schen  Biicher  (1889). 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  57 

varied   character    and    value,   and    lacking    in    unity  of 

thought.    They  seem  to  have  been  gathered  from  various 

sources,  and   incorporated  without   being  brought   into 

perfect    harmony  with   each  other.     Some  of  them  are 

evidently  historical  sources  of  high   value,  while  others 

are  highly   idealistic   and   poetic   pictures   of  Elisha  as 

interpreted  by  later  times.     Altogether  they  present  the 

various  aspects    of   Elisha's   many-sided  activity.      The 

stories  probably  come   from  different  times  and   places, 

but  all  may  be  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Northern 

Israel  some  time  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century 

B.  C. 

v  Southern  stories  concerning  Tudah. — These  Tudean   2  Kings,  chaps. 
J  *  J  J  11,13;  16:5-18. 

narratives  are  based  upon  older  sources  of  information, 

but  were  edited  by  a  later  hand.     The  different  interests 

and   conceptions   of  the  older  writers  not  infrequently 

appear    in    the    narratives    as    they    now   stand.      Their 

Judean  origin  accounts  for  the  large  share  of  attention 

given  to  the  temple  and  its  interests. 

§63.  Constructive  Study. —  In  the  case  of  each  of  the  sources  cited 
in  §  62, 

1.  Ascertain  the  various  views  concerning  the  time  of  its  origin, 
together  with  the  grounds  upon  which  its  assignment  to  this  period 
rests. 

2.  Separate  carefully  those  portions  of  the  piece  which  may  fairly 
be  regarded  as  having  had  their  origin  later  than  721  B.  C,  and 
indicate  the  reasons  for  this  separation. 

3.  Try  to  determine  in  what  portion  of  this  period  the  piece 
originated,  and  study  the  historical  environment  out  of  which  it  came. 

§  64.  C.  Sermonic  Literature,  coming  from  this  period, 
which  (1)  describes  the  times,  (2)  is  intended  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  people,  (3)  grows  out  of  the  circumstances, 
historical  and  moral,  of  the  particular  period  under  con- 
sideration. 

1.  An  oracle  concerning  Moab. — This  probably  comes   isa.  15:1— 16:12 
from  a  prophet  of  Judah,  older  than  Isaiah,  living  when 
Jeroboam   II.   (2   Kings    14:25)    subdued   Moab,  about 
775  B.  C.8     The  writer  evidently  sympathizes  with  the 

8 This  has  been  the  more  commonly  accepted  opinion;  so,  e.  g.,  Hitzig  (who 
ascribed  the    prophecy  to   lonah,  and  was  followed    by  Knobel,  Maurer,  Baur, 


58  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Moabites  (15:5,  16:  10,  11).  Isaiah  himself,  perhaps  in 
734  B.C.,  in  connection  with  the  incursion  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  or  in  712  B.  C,  when  Moab  was  intriguing  with 
Egypt  and  Philistia,  may  have  (a)  reaffirmed  its  fulfil- 
ment (16 :  13,  14),  and  at  the  same  time  (b)  have  inserted 
16  :  4b,  5.  The  discourse  is  somewhat  fragmentary  and 
obscure.  Its  most  striking  characteristic  is  the  frequent 
use  of  paronomasia  (sixteen  cases). 
15:1-9-  A  great  calamity  is  to  befall   Moab;  her  people  will 

be   stricken   with   fear,  and   will   flee    in    terror   toward 
16:1-6.  Edom.     If  now   Moab  would   submit   to   the   house  of 

16:7-12.  David  in  Jerusalem,  protection  would  be  secured.     But 

Moab  is  too  proud  to  do  this ;  and  therefore  destruction 
16:13,14-  is  certain.     "The  prediction  of  long  ago,"  says  the  later 

prophet,  "will  soon  be  fulfilled;  in  fact,  within    three 
years." 
Amos  7:  i-9-  2.    The  visions  of  Amos,  in  which  he  sees  the  destruc- 

tion, at  first  delayed,  but  finally  executed,  probably 
constituted  his  call  to  the  work  of  the  prophet.  Com- 
pare the  similar  experiences  of  Hosea  (chaps.  1-3), 
Isaiah  (chap.  6),  Jeremiah  (chap.  1),  Ezekiel  (chap.  1). 
The  prophet's  definite  statement,  in  poetical  form,  of  the 
7:9;  7:14-  destruction  of  Jeroboam's  house,  and  his  denial  that  he 

is  a  member  of  a  prophetic  society,  furnish  the  key  to  an 
7:10-13,14-17.        understanding  of  the  entire  book.     After  the  two  pieces, 
in  which  is  related  his  encounter  with  Amaziah,  there 
follow  two  other  visions,  the  first  of  which  is  entitled  the 
8:1,2^.  vision  of  the  basket  of  ripe  fruit,  with  an  explanatory  dis- 

8:4-14.  course   emphasizing  the   approaching  catastrophe;    the 

9:1.  second,  the  vision  of  the  broken  altar,  with  a  most  pas- 

9:2-8*.  sionate  description  of  the  ruin  which  is  at  hand.9 

Thenius,  et  at.),  DeWette,  Ewald,  Umbreit,  Reuss,  Kuenen,  Wellhausen 
(Encyclopedia  Britannica9,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  535);  W.  R.  Smith  (Prophets  of  Israel,  pp. 
91  f.,392),  Dillmann,  G.  A.  Smith,  Driver  (Introduction,  etc.,  pp.  215  f.),  Skinner. 
Others  have  held  that  this  was  a  prophecy  revealed  to  Isaiah  early  in  his  career,  and 
that  at  the  time  of  his  final  utterance  of  it  he  received  the  further  revelation  of  its  ful- 
filment within  three  years  (so,  e.  g.,  Delitzsch,  Orei.li).  Still  others  make  it  post- 
exilic  ;  so,  i».  g.,  SCHWALLY  (Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  207  ff.);  DUHM,  Cheyne  (Introduction,  etc.),  Marti. 

9  Chap.  9: 8<r-i  5  must  be  assigned  to  a  prophet  living  at  a  much  later  day  than  Amos. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  59 

3.  The  fate  of  the  nations,  with  whom  Israel  has  been   1:3-5,  6-8,  13-15- 
brought  into  relationship,  viz.,  Syria,  Philistia,  Ammon,   2:1-3 
Moab,10  is   destruction,  because  they  have  transgressed 

the  universal  laws  of  morality.     Will  not  the  same  judg- 
ment come  upon  Israel,  who  has  been  guilty  of  the  most  2:6-8. 
cruel  injustice  and  oppression,  notwithstanding  Yahweh's  2:9-12. 
many  efforts  to  build  and  strengthen  her?  A  calamity  is   2:13-16. 
coming   which   none  will   escape.      The   climax   in   the 
enumeration  of  countries  is  found  in  Israel.     The  same 
laws  which  apply  to  other  nations  must  apply  also  to 
Israel. 

4.  A  mos's  great  message,  contained  in  his  visions  (chaps. 
7,  8,  9),  and  serving  as  the  subject  of   his   introductory 
sermons,  (1,  2),  is  simply  repeated  again  and  again  in  his 
remaining   sermons.      These  are  (1)  As  everyone  fears  3:1-8. 
when  the  lion  roars,  so  everyone  ought  to  understand 

that  destruction  is  at  hand  when  Yahweh  has  announced 
the  fact;  (2)  Samaria's  doom  has  been  decreed,  viz.,  an   3:9—4:3. 
adversary  ;  nothing  left;  the  altars  destroyed  ;  the  women 
carried  into  captivity;  (3)  Effort  of  every  kind  was  put  4:4-13. 
forth   to  bring  Israel  to  her  senses,  but  she  would  not 
understand  and  return;  (4)  The  virgin   Israel  will  fall   5:1-6,8,9. 
never  again   to   rise   up,    because    she  would    not   seek 
Yahweh;"  (5)  Israel,  because  of  her  transgressions,  will   5:7,10-17- 
come  to  grief;  (6)  Woe  upon  those  who  pray  for  Yahweh's   5:18—6:14. 
day;  woe  upon  Samaria  for  her  recklessness  and  indif- 
ference; Yahweh  swears  by  himself  that  he  will  crush 
Israel,  by  sending  against  her  a  hostile  nation. 

On  the  Book  of  Amos  see  the  commentaries  of  W.  R.  Harper 
{International  Critical  Commentary;  1905)  ;  G.  A.  Smith  (Ex- 
positor's Bible);  Driver  (Cambridge  Bible);  Mitchell,  Orelli, 
Wellhausen,  Nowack  (Kleine  Propheten);  Marti  (Dodeka- 
propheton) ;  and  also  W.  R.  Harper,  The  Structure  of  the  Text  of 
the  Book  of  Amos  (1904);  Cheyne,  art.  "Amos,"  Encyclopcedia 
Biblica;  G.  Rothstein,  "Amos  und  seine  Stellung  innerhalb  des 
israelitischen  Prophetismus,"  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken* 
April,    1905;    Valeton,   Amos  und  Hosea;  Davidson,  Expositor, 

10 The  statements  concerning  Tyre  (1:9,10),  Edom  (1: 11,  12),  Judah  (2:4,  5)  come 
probably  from  a  later  day. 

"Vss.  8,  9  are  from  a  later  prophet. 


60  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

March  and  September,  1887;  Taylor,  art.  "Amos,"  Hastings's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  BAUMANN,  Der  Aufbau  der  Amosreden; 
L6hr,  Untersuchungen  zian  Buck  Amos  ;  Meinhold,  Studien  zur 
israelitiscken  Religionsgeschichte,  Band  I:  Der  heilige  Rest,  pp.  33-63  ; 
Seesemann,  Israel  und  Juda  bei  Amos  und  Hosea;  RlEDEL,  Alt- 
lestamentliche  Untersuchungen,  Vol.  I,  pp.  19-36;  Driver,  art. 
"Amos,"  Smith,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.) ;  Idem,  Introduc- 
tion, etc.,  pp.  313-18. 

i:a-g.  5.  Hosed 's  domestic  experience  furnishes  both  the  intro- 

duction to  the  book  and  the  prophet's  call  to  be  a 
prophet.  He  marries  a  wife,  Gomer,  who  is  strongly 
inclined  to  harlotry  at  the  time  of  marriage ;  this  shows 
itself,  later,  in  the  birth  of  children  in  sin.  She  is  put 
away.     After  awhile  she  is  purchased  as  a  slave  and  put 

3:1-5.  in  a  place  of  retention  "many  days."     Just  so  Israel  has 

2:4-7,10-14,19.  become  a  harlot,  going  after  other  gods,  and  she  must 
be  punished,12  that  is,  deprived  of  all  opportunity  for 
worship  and  for  self  government  for  "many  days." 

6.  Hosea 's  sermons,  when  properly  restored,  are  found 
to  be  models  of  poetic  and  logical  skill.  In  one  after 
another  he  deals  with  the  sins  of  his  times,  and  endeavors, 
although  ineffectually,  to  lead  the  people  to  a  correct 

4:1-19.  knotvledge  of  Jehovah  :  (1)  Israel  is  led  on  in  wickedness 

by  the  priests,  who  encourage  the  people  in  idolatry  and 
adultery.     Let  Judah  beware  of  Israel  doomed  to  death. 

5:1-14.  (2)  Israel  is  led  astray  by  priests  ignorant  of  Jehovah  and 

therefore  faithless  to  him.  Twofold  punishment  will 
come :   from  without,  an    invading   army;    from   within, 

5:15—7:7-  anarchy  and   corruption.     (3)   Israel's   blind   and   fitful 

repentance  is  not  sufficient  to  remove  the  guilt  which 
will  one  day  be  manifest  to  all ;  the  situation  is  one  of 
iniquity,  as  is  plainly  seen  in  the  assassinations  that  are 
taking   place,  the  confusion  and  desperation   on  every 

7:8—8:3.  side.     (4)  Israel,  in  seeking  aid  from  foreign  nations,  has 

abandoned  Jehovah,  and  will  in  turn  be  abandoned  to 

8:4-14.  destruction    by  him.     (5)   Israel's  self-appointed    kings 

and  her  stubborn  idolatry  are  displeasing  to  Jehovah  and 

9:1-9-  will  bring  destruction.     (6)  She  shall  go  into  exile  and 

be  deprived  of  all  her  accustomed  social  and  religious 

"Chap.  2:8,  9,   16-18,  20-25,    I_3  are  four  separate  and  later  voices  describing 
Israel's  return  to  Jehovah  and  his  acceptance  of  her. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  6 I 

privileges.     (7)  Israel  is  corrupt;  the  life  of  old  as  well   9:10-17. 
as  young  is  licentious.     (8)  Israel  is  wicked  in  propor-    10:1-8. 
tion  to  her  prosperity;  but  an  end  is  coming  of  all  that 
she  has  falsely  trusted.     (9)  Israel's  history  is  one  of  sin   10:9-15. 
and  guilt;  the  fruit  of  such  seed  is  a  sad  harvest;  viz., 
desolation,  destruction,  and  death,  even  that  of  the  king. 
(10)  But  yet  Israel  is  a  child,  and  Jehovah  his  father,   h:i-h. 
with  all  a  father's  love  in  spite  of  ingratitude  and  deser- 
tion,    (n)  The  falsity  and  faithlessness  of  Israel  from   12:1-15. 
the  very  beginning   must  bring  retribution   and    ruin. 
(12)  Israel  shall  be  utterly  destroyed  and  condemned  to   13:1-16. 
Sheol.     (13)  An  exhortation  to  repentance  and  words  of  14:1-8. 
hope. 

On  the  Book  of  Hosea  see:  the  commentaries  by  W.  R.  Harper 
{International  Critical  Commentary,  1905);  G.  A.  Smith  {Exposi- 
tor's Bible);  Cheyne  (Cambridge  Bible);  Ewald,  Hitzig,  Orelli, 
Wunsche,  Simson,  Wellhausen  (Kleine  Propheten);  Nowack 
(Kleine  Propheten);  Marti  (Dodekapropheton);  V ALETON  (Amos  und 
Hosea);  and  also  W.  R.  Harper,  The  Structure  of  the  Text  of 
the  Book  of  Hosea  (1905);  Oettli,  Amos  und  Hosea  (1901);  Mein- 
HOLD,  Studien  zur  israelitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Band  I :  Der 
heilige  Rest,  pp.  64-88  ;  Seesemann,  Israel  und  fuda  bei  Amos 
und  Hosea  nebst  einem  Excurs  iiber  Hos.  1-3;  RlEDEL,  Alt- 
testamentliche  Untersitchungen,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-18;  Davidson,  art. 
"Hosea,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  W.  R.  Smith  and 
Marti,  art.  "Hosea,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica ;  Driver,  Introduction, 
etc.,  pp.  301-7. 

7.  The  call  of  Isaiah  occurred  about  740  B.  C. ;  the  isa.,  chap.  6. 
story  of  this  call  was  not  made  public  before  730  B.  C; 

its  form  and  position  show  that  it  was  intended  to  serve 
as  an  explanation  and  justification  of  the  severe  and  ter- 
rible prophecies  which  precede  it  (viz.,  chaps.  2-5).  The 
wording  of  the  chapter  shows  that  the  prophet  had  been 
preaching  several  years  before  the  publication  of  this  call. 
It  includes  two  parts  :  (1)  A  vision  of  the  glory  of  the  6:1-7. 
Holy  One  of  Israel ;  from  this  we  learn  Isaiah's  concep- 
tion of  God;  (2)  The  commission  of  the  prophet,  viz.,  to  6:8-13. 
be  a  preacher  to  his  people,  but  without  success,  until  the 
sin-stricken  nation  shall  be  purged  by  the  devastation  of 
an  invader;  the  outcome  of  this  period  of  purification 
will  be  a  "holy  seed,"  something  indestructible. 

8.  The  ideal  and  the  real,  as   they   presented   them-   isa.  2:2-4. 


62  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

selves  to  Isaiah,  about  the  year  735  B.  C,  when  he  was 

beginning    his  work    as    preacher,    are    described    most 

vividly  in  chaps.  2-4:  (1)  Israel's  religion,  in  the  future, 

will  have  the  place  of  pre-eminence  among  the  world's 

2:5-8.  nations   and  will  bring   universal  peace;'3  but   (2)   this 

cannot  be  realized  in  the  present  condition  of  luxury, 

2:9-17.  infidelity,  and  idolatry ;  there  must  first  come  a.  judgment 

2:18-21. 

2:22—3:15-  upon  Palestine  which  will  fall  upon  everything  in  which 

the  nation  has  wrongly  placed  its  dependence,  whether 

(a)  inanimate  objects,  which   shall   be   brought  low,  or 

(3)  idols,  which  shall  be  destroyed,  or  (c)  society,  of  which 

3:16—4:1.  the  entire  collapse  may  be  expected,  or  (d)  women,  whose 

luxurious  tastes  have  brought  ruin  upon  themselves  and 
their  husbands — all  must  be  purged;  but,  after  this 
punishment  has  been  meted  out,  (3)  the  ideal  condition 
will  be  realized,  the  remnant  will  once  more  prosper; 
those  who  constitute  the  citizenship  of  Zion  will  be  pure 
and  holy  —  all  this  when  the  present  filth  of  Zion  has 
been  purged.14 

isa.,chap.  5.  9.   The  parable  of the  vineyard  and  its  fruit  is  one  of 

Isaiah's  most  characteristic  sermons  and  was  preached 
about  735  B.  C:  (1)  The  prophet  sings  a  song  — he  calls 
it  a  song  of  love,  in  which  he  describes  a  vineyard 
(Israel),  carefully  prepared  and  planted  with  the  choicest 

5:i-7.  vines  by  its  owner  (Jehovah).     This  vineyard,  expected 

to  produce  grapes,  yields  only  wild  ones,  nothing  more 
than  would  have  grown  without  care  and  without  pro- 
tection. What  will  follow?  Utter  destruction  of  the 
vineyard  by  its  owner.     But  (2)  of  what  kind  of  sinners 

5:8-10,11-17,18,   is    Israel    made    up?     (a)  Avaricious    monopolists;    (b) 

19,20,21,22,23.   dissolute  debauchees ;    (c)  presumptuous  fools ;  (d)  per- 

verters  of  truth  ;   (e)  self-conceited  skeptics ;    (/)  corrupt 

5:24.  officials.     (3)  These  will  all  be   destroyed  in  Jehovah's 

indignation. 

10.    The  collapse  of  Israel  is  described   in  a   poetic 
utterance  found  in  9  :  8 — 10  :  4  with  5  :  25-29  as  a  conclu- 

13 This  passage,  found  likewise  in  Mic.  4:1  £f.,  was  probably  placed  here  by  a 
later  prophet,  to  soften  the  very  severe  statements  that  follow. 

*4In  this  passage  2 : 5,  20,  22 ;  3  :  10  f.,  18-23,  25  f.;  4:5  f.  are  probably  from  a 
later  prophet. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  63 

sion.      The  feature  of  the  poem  is  its  refrain  which  is 
repeated  at  the  close  of  each  stanza :    (1)  Foreign  foes  9:8-12. 
will    inflict  irreparable  injury;    but  without   avail.     (2)   9:13-17. 
Merciless   pestilence  will   bring  indescribable  suffering. 
(3)  Internal  strife  will  introduce  ruin  and  disaster.     (4)   9:18-21. 
Death  or  captivity  is  awaiting  one  and  all  of  them.     But   10:1-4. 
none  of  these  afflictions  has  brought  Israel  to  her  senses ; 
she  continues  as  before,  and  Jehovah's  hand  is  still  out- 
stretched.    Therefore,  now,  (5)  they  shall  be  given  over  5:26-30. 
to  the  worst  of  enemies;  an  army  marching  swiftly,  with 
perfect  outfit,  ready  for  action,  invincible,  shall  come  and 
take  them  away.15 

11.    The  Syro-Ephraimitish  war  (735-734  B.  C.)  fur- 
nished the  occasion  for  some  of  Isaiah's  most  interesting 
work  :  (1)  Israel  and  Syria  propose  to  force  Judah  into  a   7:1. 
triple  alliance   against    the   aggression  of  Assyria.     (2)   7:2. 
Judah  and  Jerusalem   are  in  great   distress.     (3)  Ahaz,   7:3-9. 
who   is  inclined  to  join  hands  with  Assyria,  is  told  by 
Isaiah  that  he  need  not  fear ;  the  doom  of  Israel  and 
Syria  is  at  hand  ;  they  cannot  injure  Judah.     (4)  Because  7:10-17. 
Ahaz  is  skeptical,   a  sign   is   given  —  the  child  {God-is- 
with- us),  and  before  this  child  is  old  enough  to  distin- 
guish good  from  evil,  Israel  and  Syria  will  be  forsaken, 
and  Judah,  likewise,  will  be  called  to  suffer.     (5)  A  great  7:18-25. 
devastation  will  come  upon  Judah,  because  of  the  conflict 
between  Assyria  and  Egypt,  and  the  land  will  become  a 
ruin.     (6)  Yes,  let  the  people  know  that  Israel  and  Syria  8:1-8. 
will    be    laid    waste    before    Mahar-shalal-hash-baz,    the 
prophet's  son  born  a  little  later,  is  two  years  old ;  and 
this  calamity  to  the  nation  in  the  north  will  include  also 
Judah  in  the  south.    (7)  In  these  days  of  disaster  let  not  8:11-15. 
the  lack  of  faith  of  the  people  find  a  place  in  the  heart  of 
the  prophet  or  his  disciples ;  Jehovah  is  the  only  source 
of  help.     (8)  In  these  days  of  darkness,  men  must  not  8:16-22. 
resort  to  the  dead,  but  to  the  "direction  and  the  admoni- 
tion."    (9)  But  a  day  of  brightness  is  coming  in  which   9:2-7. 
the  most  northern  tribes  (just  carried  into  captivity),  will 
have    first    share.      Instead    of   darkness    there  will    be 
light;  instead  of  grief,  joy;    for  the  tribes,  taken  into 

^The  position  of  10  : 1-4  is  not  satisfactory  logically.     See  MITCHELL,  p.  222. 


64  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

captivity,  will  throw  off  the  yoke,  for  Assyria's  armies 
will  have  been  destroyed.  The  instrument  of  deliver- 
ance will  be  the  child,  the  Prince  of  Peace,  through  whom 
justice  and  peace  will  endure  forever. 

12.  The  fall  of  Damascus  and  that  of  Samaria  are 
17:1-11.                treated  likewise  in  two  short  pieces:   (1)  The  oracle  on 

Damascus :  (a)  Damascus  and  Ephraim  will  soon  perish  ; 
but  (6)  a  remnant  will    escape  that   will  be  faithful   to 
Jehovah;    (c)   Ephraim    falls  because   she   has   forsaken 
38:1-6.  Jehovah  and  adopted  foreign  cults.    (2)  Samaria  in  all  her 

haughtiness  is  doomed  to  destruction  at  Jehovah's  hand. 

On  the  book  of  Isaiah  see  especially :  the  commentaries  of 
Delitzsch,  Ewald,  G.  A.  Smith  {Expositor's  Bible);  Skinner 
{Cambridge  Bible) ;  Cheyne,  Orelli,  Duhm,  Marti,  Dillmann, 
Kittel,  Mitchell,  and  also  Cheyne,  Introduction  to  the  Prophecies 
of  Isaiah;  Driver,  Isaiah,  His  life  and  Times  ("Men  of  the  Bible 
Series");  G.  A.  Smith,  art.  "Isaiah,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible;  Cheyne,  art.  "Isaiah,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  C.  H.  H. 
Wright,  art.  "Isaiah,"  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed). 

13.  Micah,  a  co-worker  of  Isaiah,  brought  up  in  a 
country  home  (1:1,  14),  and  speaking  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  masses,  rather  than  that  of  the  upper 
classes,  begins  his  work  before  721  B.  C.  (1  :  6).  Unlike 
Isaiah  he  has  little  or  no  interest  in  the  political  situa- 
tion.*6     The    essence    of    his    utterance    is    rebuke    and 

1:1-7;  denunciation:    (1)  Jehovah   is   coming    with   judgment 

against  Samaria  and  Jerusalem  because  of  the  wickedness 

1:8-15.  which  is  seen  in  the  cities,  especially  Samaria;  but  the 

judgment  will  come  also  upon  Jerusalem  and  upon  the 
country  in  which  the  prophet's  own  home  lies.     (2)  The 

a:  1-5.  sin  consists  in  the  outrageous  conduct  of  those  in  power, 

who  rob  their  poorer  neighbors  that  they  may  become 
richer.  Just  so  they  in  turn  will  be  robbed  by  foreign 
invaders.    Notwithstanding  their  remonstrance,  they  shall 

2:6-10.  be  carried  away,  because  they  plunder  my  people.    (3) 

a:  11.  The  kind  of  a  prophet  Israel  desires  is  one  who  speaks 

false  things.  (4)  The  ruling  classes  are  devouring  sav- 
ages; the  softly  speaking  prophets  shall  be  confounded, 

3:1-4,  5-8,  9-12.  the  prophet's  own  work  shall  stand  ;  the  national  sins  are 
grievous;  Zion  shall  be  plowed  as  a  field. 
l6Only  chaps.  1 ;  2  :  i-ii  and  3  : 1-12  may  be  assigned  to  Micah. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  65 

On  the  Book  of  Micah  see  especially  the  commentaries  by 
Cheyne  {Cambridge  Bible);  G.  A.  Smith  {Expositor's  Bible); 
Nowack  (Kleine  Propheten);  Wellhausen  {Kleine  Propheten); 
Marti  {Dodekapropheton);  Elhorst,  Evvald,  Hitzig,  Orelli,  and 
also  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament, 
pp.  325-34;  Ryssel,  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Textgestalt  und  die 
Echtheit  des  Buches  Micha  (1887) ;  W.  R.  Smith  and  T.  K.  Cheyne, 
art.  "Micah,"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica;  STADE,  "  Bemerkungen  iiber 
das  Buch  Micha,"  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  alltestamentliche  Wissenschafl, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  1 61-7 1;  III,  1-16;  IV,  291-97;  Nowack,  art.  "Micah," 
Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Taylor,  "The  Message  of 
Micah,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XXV  (1905),  pp.  201-14. 

§65.  Constructive  Study. — In  the  case  of  each  piece  or  group  of 
pieces  cited  in  §64,  1-13,  consider  (1)  the  characteristics  of  style  which 
it  presents ;  (2)  its  strophic  structure  and  poetical  form  ;  (3)  any 
external  features  or  historical  allusions  which  show  its  relationship  to 
the  times  to  which  it  is  assigned. 

§66.  Additions  and  Insertions  have  been  made  in  the 
prophetic  writings  by  writers  of  a  date  later  than  that  of 
the  original  author.  This  fact  is  now  generally  acknowl- 
edged,'7 although  there  is  not  always  entire  agreement  as 
to  the  particular  passages  which  may  be  called  late. 
These  insertions  and  additions  are  of  several  kinds  : 

1.  Sometimes  a  single  verse  or  phrase  is  introduced 
by  way  of  explanation,  or  for  the  purpose  of  adding  a 
new  fact  of  history  bearing  upon  the  preceding  passage. 
This  may  be  the  work  (a)  of  someone  who  has  placed  on 

the  margin  of  the  MS.  a  phrase  which  later  finds  its  way   isa.  2:30;  3:1*/ 

i  -li-i  i  •  i  1    •  i    i  •     •  5  :  3°i    trie    words 

into  the  text  itself;  the  reader  or  writer,  by  this  addition?      King  of  as- 
interprets,  as  it  were,  the  prophecy  or  expands  it,   or      20;  8:5.' 
brings  it  up  to  date  ;  or  (b)  of  the  editor  of  the  collection   isa.  2:5;    7:8*,- 
who  makes  such  an  insertion  to  enable  him  to  fit  together 
two  or  more  passages  not  closely  connected. 

2.  Sometimes  the  addition  or  insertion  consists  of  a 
complete  or  partially  complete  discourse,  introduced  by   isa. 5:15, 16. 
an  editor  because  it  is  (a)  similar  to  the  original  passage,   isa.  2:2-4. 
or  (6)  in  contrast  with  it,  or  (c)  needed  in  view  of  later 
information  or  doctrinal  idea,  to  make  it  more  complete   isa. 3:10 f.,  18-23, 
from  the  editor's  point  of  view,  or  (d)  serves  as  an  intro-      g:i    (exc.   first 

1  •  'iM  •        •        1        11.*  -t-.if-i*  phrase),  2. 

duction.      1  he  principal  additions  to  Isaiah  s  discourses   isa.z:x;a:i. 
(delivered  before  721  B.  C.)  are  given  above.     The  fol- 

*i  Cf.  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  p.  no, 
lines  1-8. 


66  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

lowing  are  the  more  important  passages  recognized  as 
late  in  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Micah,  chaps.  1-3  : 

a)  Amos  1:1;  1:2;  1 : 9  f . ;  1 : 1 1  f. ;  2:  4  f. ;  4:  *jb,  8a; 
4:13;   5 :  S  f . ;  6:2;  6:9-110/   8:6;  9:6  f  - ;   9:8^-15. 

b)  Hosea  1:1;  1:7;  2:1-3;  2:6;  2:8  f. ;  2:12;  2:16— 
18;  2:20-25;  3:5;  6:  11;  8:1b,  10,  14;  9 : 9;  10:3  £.,  11^, 
14^;  11:8b,  9a,  io3,  11;   12:  ib,  4^-7,  13,  14;   14:6,  7,  9. 

<:)  Micah  2:11  f. 
§67.  Constructive  Study. — Take  up  some  of  the  passages  (see  above) 
supposed  to  be  late,  and  (1)  ascertain  the  grounds  on  which  the  assign- 
ment to  a  later  date  is  alleged  to  rest;  (2)  determine  the  purpose 
sought  to  be  gained  by  the  later  writer,  or  editor,  in  making  the 
addition. 

§  68.  Later  Literary  Sources  furnishing  information 
concerning  this  period,  and  aiding  toward  a  better  under- 
standing of  (1)  the  institutions,  (2)  the  movements,  (3) 
the  utterances  of  the  principal  characters  are  to  be  found 
as  follows  : 

1  Kings  12 :  20-24 ;  1.  Later  traditions  in  Kings,  e.  g.,  the  story  of  Reho- 
12:33  —  13:34;  °        *  J 

14: 1-18,2 Kings  boam's  purpose  to  recover  Northern  Israel   by  force  of 

1 : 9-16 ;   14 :  23-  r      r  J 

29;  15:1-4,  5,  arms;  the  story  of  the  prophet's  denunciation  of  the 
altar  at  Bethel ;  the  prophecy  of  Ahijah  concerning 
Jeroboam's  son  Abijah ;  the  sending  of  the  companies 
of  troops  to  seize  Elijah;  the  account  of  the  reigns  of 
Jeroboam  II.  of  Israel  and  Azariah  of  Judah;  the  expla- 
nation of  the  fall  of  Samaria. 

2  Chron.  14:9-15;  2.  Later  traditions  in  Chronicles,  consisting  in  large 

20:1-30 ;  26: 16- 

20.    '  part  of  (a)  earlier  materials  worked  over  by  the  Chron- 

icler (<?.  g.,  the  accounts  of  Asa's  victory  over  the  Cushites, 
Jehoshaphat's  victory  over  Moab  and  Ammon,  and  the 
infliction  of  leprosy  upon  Uzziah),  and  to  a  much  less 
extent  of  the  original  contribution  of  the  Chronicler  him- 
self, consisting  chiefly  of  editorial  modifications,  and  the 
general  handling  of  the  material   in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  it  represent  the  Chronicler's  own  point  of  view.'8 
§  69.  Constructive  Study. — It  is  important  to  make  use  of  these  later 
traditions,  and  to  this  end  it  is  suggested  that,  in  the  case  of  the  sources 
indicated  in  §68,  the  student — 

18 For  discussions  of  the  sources  of  Chronicles  see  the  literature  cited  in  §45, 
note  3. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  67 

i.  Secure  from  some  authority  the  actual  Scripture  material  which 
scholars  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  included  in  each. 

2.  Consider  the  various  points  which  are  thought  to  be  character- 
istic of  them. 

3.  Study  closely  the  times  in  which  they  are  claimed  to  have  had 
their  origin,  and  the  important  ideas  of  those  times. 

4.  Note  the  "traditions"  given  concerning  the  period  which  forms 
the  basis  of  this  study,  and  distinguish  the  sympathies  and  antipathies 
which  have  been  transferred  from  the  later  period. 

5.  Sum  up  briefly  the  essential  events  and  ideas  which,  after  due 
allowance  has  been  made  for  such  transference,  may  fairly  be  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  period  under  consideration. 

§  70.  The  Monumental  Sources  illustrating  the  period  933-721  B.  C. 
are  very  abundant.     They  may  be  grouped  as  follows  : 

1.  Egyptian. —  A  bas-relief  on  the  southern  wall  of  the  temple  of 
Amen  at  Karnak  representing  Shishak  as  subduing  his  enemies,  and 
giving  the  names  of  several  cities  in  Israel  and  Judah  conquered  by 
him  upon  his  raid  in  the  days  of  Rehoboam  (1  Kings  14:25-28). 

On  this  inscription  and  the  bearings  of  Egypt  on  Israelitish  affairs  see:  Driver, 
in  Hogarth's  Authority  and  Archaeology,  pp.  87  f.;  Price,  The  Monuments  and  the 
Old  Testament,  pp.  140-42;  PATON,  Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  pp.  192  f. 

2.  Assyrian. —  (a)  The  Monolith  Inscription  of  Shalmaneser  II. 
containing  his  account  of  the  battle  of  Karkar  (854  B.  C),  and  mention- 
ing Ahab  of  Israel  as  one  of  the  allied  kings  arrayed  against  him  and 
defeated.  (i>)  The  Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  II.  representing 
"Jehu  son  of  Omri"  as  prostrating  himself  before  Shalmaneser  and 
bringing  him  tribute,  (c)  The  tribute  of  Jehu  is  mentioned  also  by 
Shalmaneser  II.  in  an  inscription  on  a  paving-stone  from  Calah.  (a7) 
Adad-nirari  III.  (812-783  B.  C.)  includes  "the  land  of  Omri"  in  the 
list  of  countries  subjugated  in  one  of  his  campaigns,  (e)  A  comparison 
of  the  statement  of  the  Babylonian  chronicle  concerning  this  period, 
with  a  corresponding  statement  of  a  list  of  the  Babylonian  dynasties 
establishes  the  identity  of  the  biblical  Pul  (2  Kings  15  :  19)  with  Tiglath- 
pileser  III.  (/)  Tiglath-pileser  III.  mentions  Menahem  as  paying 
tribute  in  738  B.  C,  and  names  "  Azriyahu  of  Ya'udi"  as  having  joined 
forces  with  Hamath  against  him  and  having  been  repulsed.  Until 
within  recent  years  Azriyahu  was  supposed  to  be  Azariah  or  Uzziah, 
king  of  Judah,  but  it  seems  more  probable  that  a  king  of  a  region  in 
Northern  Syria  is  here  alluded  to.  Tiglath-pileser  further  describes 
the  expedition  against  Damascus  and  Northern  Israel  made  in  response 


68  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

to  the  request  of  Ahaz  of  Judah  and  states  that  he  slew  Pekah  and 
appointed  Hoshea  as  king  of  Israel  (2  Kings  16:  7  ff.).  Tiglath-pileser 
also  includes  Ahaz  of  Judah  among  his  tributaries  in  the  year  728  B.C. 
(g)  Sargon,  the  successor  of  Shalmaneser  IV.  who  began  the  siege  of 
Samaria,  tells  of  his  capture  of  the  city  and  the  deportation  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  in  three  different  passages  of  his  inscriptions  speaks 
of  having  settled  various  peoples  in  Samaria  (2  Kings,  chap.  17). 

For  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  and  the  significance  of  Assyria  in  this  period  see 
especially:  R.  F.  Harper,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature,  pp.  33-64;  Driver, 
in  Hogarth's  Authority  and  Archeology,  pp.  92-102;  Price,  The  Monuments  and 
the  Old  Testament,  pp.  148-75;  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  pp.  1 58-80;  Winckler 
UND  ZlMMERN,  Die  Keilhischriften  und  das  Alte  Testament  (3d  ed.  1902),  pp.  41-66, 
171-75,  240-70 ;  G.  S.  GOODSPEED,  A  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  (1902), 
pp.  185-247;  McCuRDY,  History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  I  (1S95),  pp. 
261-401  ;  Paton,  Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (1901),  pp.  199-245;  Rogers, 
A  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  Vol.  II  (1900),  pp.  72-157;  A.  Jeremias,  Das 
Alte  Testament  im  Lichte  des  alien  Orients  (1904),  pp.  289-303;  T.  G.  Pinches, 
The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  the  Historical  Records  of  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia (2d  ed.  1903),  pp.  327-64. 

3.  Moabite. — The  inscription  of  Mesha,  King  of  Moab,  discovered 
at  Dibon  in  1868,  and  containing  an  account  in  Mesha's  own  words  of 
the  revolt  of  Moab  from  Israel  mentioned  in  2  Kings  3:4,  5. 

On  the  inscription  of  Mesha  see  especially  :  Driver,  Notes  on  the  Hebrew  Text  of 
the  Books  of  Samuel,  pp.  lxxxv-xciv ;  Driver,  art.  "Mesha,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica; 
Bennett,  art.  "Moab,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Ball,  Light  from  the 
East,  p.  240;  Price,  The  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament,  pp.  142-47;  Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  532-36  ;  Lidzbarski,  Handbuch  der  nord- 
semitischen  Epigraphik,  pp.  415  f. ;  G.  A.  COOKE,  A  Text-Book  of  North  Semitic  In- 
scriptions (1903),  pp.  1-14;  Konig,  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  morgenldndischen 
Gesellschaft,  Vol.  59  (1905),  pp.  233-51. 

4.  Aramaic. — The  inscriptions  from  Zinjirli  dating  from  the  eighth 
century  B.  C.  furnish  many  illustrations  of  the  religious  and  political 
life  of  Northern  Syria  at  this  time,  and  show  the  dominance  of  Assyria 
in  the  whole  of  Western  Asia. 

On  the  Zinjirli  inscriptions  see :  G.  A.  Cooke,  A  Text-Book  of  North  Semitic 
Inscriptions,  pp.  159-85;  LiDZBARSKl,  Handbuch  der  nordsemitischen  Epigraphik, 
pp.  440-44  ;  Ausgrabungen  in  Sendschirli,  ausgefiihrt  und  herausgegeben  im  Auftrage 
des  Orient-Comite's  zu  Berlin  (1893),  Parts  I,  III,  pp.  44-54,  IV,  pp.  55-84;  D.  H. 
Muller,  "  Die  altsemitischen  Inschriften  von  Sendschirli,"  Wiener  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,  Vol.  VII  (1893),  pp.  33-70,  113-140. 

§71.  Constructive  Study. — Prepare  a  brief  statement  upon  the  essen- 
tial facts  in  the  life  and  history  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Moab,  and  Syria 
during  this  period,  with  special  reference  to  their  bearing  upon  the 
life  and  thought  of  Israel. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  69 

§72.  Allusions  to  the  Institutions  found  in  the  writings  of  the  period 
throw  light  upon  the  non-prophetic  and  likewise  the  prophetic  religious 
thought  of  the  times.     The  chief  material  of  this  kind  is  as  follows: 

1.  The  Priest:  Exod.  20:6;  1  Kings  18:19-40;  Hos.  4:6-9;  5:1; 
6:9;  Amos  7:10-17;  Mic.  3:11;  Isa.  28:7;  Deut.  33:8-11. 

2.  The  Place  of  Worship:  Exod.  20:24  ff . ;  1  Kings  2:28-30;  3:4; 
6:1-38;  18:30-38;  Amos  2:8;  3:14;  4:4;  5:55  7:9>  r3!  8:I4;  9:IJ 
Hos.  4: 13,  15;  8:1;  9:4,  8,  15  ;  10:8;  12:11;  Isa.  1  :i2 ;  6: 1,  4;  Mic. 
3:12. 

3.  Sacrifice:  Exod.  20:24;  23:18;  24:5;  34:25;  1  Kings  3:4; 
12:26-33;  Isa.  1:11-13;  Hos.  3:4;  4:13.  x95  6:6;  8:13;  9:4;  11:2; 
13:2;  1  Kings  8:5;  18:30-38;  12:26-33;  Deut.  27:6^,7;  Amos 
4:4  f.;  5:22-25. 

4.  Feasts:  Exod.  34:18-25 ;  23: 14-17 ;  1  Kings  8:2,  65  f.;  12:32  f.; 
9:25;  2  Kings  4:23;  Amos  5:21  ;  8:  10;  Hos.  2:11;  5:7;  9:5;  12:9; 
Isa.  1:  13  f. 

5.  The  Sabbath:  Exod.  20:8-11;  23:10-12;  34:21;  21:2-11; 
2  Kings  4:23;   11:5,  7,  9;  Amos  8:5;  Hos.  2:11;  Isa.  1:13. 

6.  The  Clean  and  Unclean:  Exod.  23:19^;  34:26^;  22:31;  2 
Kings  5:10-14;  Isa.  6:5;  Amos  7:17;   Hos.  9:3;  Isa.  1:16;  6:5. 

7.  Prayer:  Gen.  18:22  f. ;  19:18-22;  20:7,17;  24:12-14;  25:21; 
30:6,  17,  22;  32:9-12;  35:3;  Exod.  3:7,  9;  5:22  f. ;  8:8,  12,  29  ff. ; 
9:28  ff.;  10:17  ff.;  14:  10,  15;  15:25;  17:4,  8-15;  32:11-14,  30-32; 
33:7-11;  34:9;  Numb.  10:35  f.;  11:1-3,  10-15,  ^  12:13;  14:13-19; 
21:7;  23:10;  Josh.  7:6-9;  10:12-14;  24:7;  1  Kings  3:6-9;  18:24-40; 
2  Kings  4:33;  6:17-20. 

8.  The  Vow :  Gen.  14:21  ff. ;   28:20  ff. ;  31:13;  Numb.  21 : 1-3. 

9.  Blessings  and  Cursings:  Gen.  3:14,  17;  4:11;  9:25  f.;  12:3; 
27:27-29,  35,  39  f.;  48:15  f.;  49:1-27;  Exod.  12:32;  21:17;  23:21, 
25-31;  Numb.  22:6,   24:9;  Deut.  33:1-29. 

10.  The  Ban:  Exod.  22:19;  Numb.  21:2;  Josh.  8:26. 

11.  The  Oath:  Gen.  14:22;  15:8-11,  17  f . ;  21:22-24;  22:15; 
24:1-3.  27;  25:33;  26:3,  26-31;  31:53;  42:15,  47:29;  50:25;  Exod. 
13:19;  Josh.  2:12-14,  20;  6:26;  1  Kings  1:13,  17,  30,  51  f . ;  2:23  f., 
36-46. 

12.  The  Fast:  Exod.  34:28;  24:18;    1  Kings  21:9,  12,  27. 

13.  Use  of  Oracles,  Urim  and  Thummim,  Ephod,  Lot,  etc. :  Gen. 
24:12-14;  25:22  f. ;  Numb.  24:3,  15;  Deut.  33:8;  Josh.  16:1;  17:14, 
17  ;  2  Kings  8:7  ff . ;  Amos  2:11,  16  ;  Hos.  3:4  ;  Isa.  15:1;  17:14; 
Mic.  2:5. 


JO  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

14.  Magic,  Divination,  etc.:  Gen.  44:5,  15;  Exod.  22:17  f. ;  Numb. 
22:7;  23:23;   2  Kings  9:22;  Isa.  2:6;  Mic.  3:6  f.,  11. 

15.  Mourning  Customs  :  Gen.  37:34  f.;  1  Kings  21:27;  20:31  f. ; 
Amos  1:16;  8:10;  Isa.  3:24;  Mic.  1:8,  16. 

16.  Circumcision  :   Exod.  4:24  ff. ;  Josh.  5:2  f.,  9. 

§73.  Constructive  Study. —  Upon  the  basis  of  the  material  indicated 
in  §72  formulate  a  general  statement  which  will  characterize  the 
religious  sentiment  of  the  times  as  reflected  in  its  institutions  in 
respect  to  — 

1.  Its  purity  from  superstition. 

2.  Its  stage  of  advancement. 

3.  Its  simplicity  or  complexity. 

4.  Its  adaptation  to  agricultural  life. 

5.  The  presence  of  elements  approved  or  disapproved  by  the  con- 
temporary or  later  prophets. 

6.  The  presence  of  elements  common  to  other  Semitic  religions. 

7.  The  presence  of  elements  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  religion. 

8.  The  relative  importance  of  the  religious  and  moral  elements. 

§  74.  Make  a  Rapid  Survey  of  the  Great  Characters  and 
Events  of  the  period,  with  a  view  to  determining  in  each 
case  their  significance  as  relating  to  the  general  religious 
thought  of  the  times,  or  to  the  more  specific  form  of 
thought  represented  by  the  prophets,  viz.: 

1  Kings  11:36-40;  j.  The  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  with  the  part  played 

in  this  revolt  by  the  prophets. 

1  Kings  12:25—  2.  The  organization  of  Northern  Israel  by  Jeroboam 

I.,  with  the  opportunity  thus  offered  for  the  growth  of 
prophecy. 

14:35!  3.  The  invasion  of  Shishak;  its  significance  to  both 

Israel  and  Judah. 

12:21-24;  14:30;  4.  The  civil  wars  of  Israel  and  Judah,  their  occasion, 

15:8,3a.  J 

together  with  the  gains  and  losses  incurred  therein. 

15:9-24.  5-  The  revival  in  Judah  under  Asa;  its  form,  charac- 

ter, and  results  for  the  future. 

16:15-34,  etc.  6.  The  work  of  Omri  and  his  dynasty ;  its  recogni- 

tion in  the  Assyrian  records ;  and  its  religious  significance. 

16:31.  7.  Affiliation  with  Phoenicia;  its  occasion;  its  rela- 

tionship to  the  old  Canaanitish  regime. 

17:1—19:21.  8.  The    work    of    Elijah;    its  significance   for   later 

prophetic  work. 


BACKGROUND    OF    PROPHECY    IN    NORTHERN    KINGDOM  J I 

g.  Relations   with    Syria,  that    is,    Damascus;    their   14:18;  20:1-34; 

'  22  :  i  ff. 

bearing  upon  the  historical  development  of  this  period. 

10.  The    beginning    of   relations    with   Assyria  (the  2  Kings  16: 7  f. 
battle  of  Karkar) ;  its  meaning  for  the  future. 

11.  Relations  with  Moab,  and  Moab's  revolt.  1:1. 

12.  Relations  between   Syria  and  Assyria,  and  their   1  Kings  16:9  ff. 
meaning  from  Israel's  point  of  view. 

13.  The  growing  strength  of  Baalism  under  Omri's   1  Kings  18 :  19  ff . 
dynasty. 

14.  The  accession  of  Jehu's  dynasty,  with  the  pro-   2  Kings  9:1— 10: 
phetic  purpose  sought  to  be  gained  through  it. 

15.  Relations  of  Israel,  Damascus,  and  Assyria  in  the  2  Kings  13:3-7. 
times  of  Jehu's  dynasty. 

16.  The  work  of   Elisha,  its  political,  as  well  as  its   2:1-8:15. 
religious  meaning. 

17.  The  sons  of  the  prophets,  their  earlier  and  their 
later  position  in  prophecy. 

18.  The  reigns  of  Jeroboam  II.  and  Uzziah,  as  repre-   2  Kings  14:23-29; 

l5  '■  I_7- 

senting  the  highest  political  and  commercial  develop- 
ment reached  by  Israel  and  Judah. 

19.  Amos  and   his  work;    its    antecedents    and    its 
results. 

20.  Hosea  and  his  work,  in  relation  to  Amos. 

21.  Isaiah's  early  work  in  Judah.  isa.  chaps.  2-5, 6, 

22.  Micah  and  his  work.  Mic.  1:1—3:12. 
2X.  The  Syro-Ephraimitish  war,  its  purpose  and  its   a  Kings  16:1-20; 

•J  J  r  r      r  Isa.,  chaps. 7, 8. 

issue. 

24.  The  capture  of  Damascus  by  Tiglath-pileser. 

25.  The  attitude  of  Egypt  in  the  days  of  the  Northern 
kingdom. 

26.  The  Palestinian  revolt  against  Assyria,  its  occa- 
sion and  the  outcome. 

27.  The  capture  of  Samaria  by  Sargon,  its  meaning  2  Kings,  chap.  17. 
in  the  development  of  Israelitish  religion  and  thought. 

On  the  history  of  this  period  see :  Ewald,  History  of  Israel, 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  1-200 ;  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of 
Israel,  pp.  457—77 ;  Kittel,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
205-311,  329-54;  Kent,  A  History  of  the  Hebrew  People,  Vol.  I, 
PP-  3-45,  57-76,  98-104;  Guthe,  art.  "  Israel,"  §§  28-32,  Encyclo- 
pedia Biblica;  F.  H.  Woods,  art.  "  Kingdom  of  Israel,"  Hastings's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Ottley,  A  Short  History  of  the  Hebrews  to 


J2  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

the  Roman  Period,  pp.  158-92;  Wade,  Old  Testament  History,  pp. 
312-64;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  177-237;  Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Voltes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  344-57,  519-602;  Guthe, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp.  129-94;  Winckler,  Geschichte 
Israels  in  Einzeldarstellungen,  Teil  I,  pp.  133-55,  160-71. 

§75.  Constructive  Study. —  Consider  the  general  religious  progress 
indicated  by  these  events  and  movements,  and  formulate  the  same  pro- 
visionally under  the  heads  given  below.  This  provisional  statement 
will  be  used  later  in  securing  a  still  more  accurate  expression  of  the 
thought  of  the  period. 

1.  The  nation's  conception  of  Jehovah. 

2.  The  existence  of  other  gods  than  Jehovah. 

3.  Faith  in  Jehovah's  power  to  deliver. 

4.  Development  of  methods  of  worship. 

5.  Israel's  attitude  toward  other  peoples. 

6.  Israel's  conception  of  its  own  future. 

7.  Current  opinion  as  to  the  rewards  of  righteousness. 

8.  Current  opinion  as  to  the  consequence  of  sin. 

9.  The  standard  of  conduct  in  higher  and  lower  classes. 
10.  The  general  state  of  religion. 

n.  Means  of  religious  propaganda. 

12.  The  Northern  kingdom,  in  contrast  with  the  Southern  from  a 
religious  point  of  view. 

§76.  The  Historical  Background  of  this  period  is  before  us,  includ- 
ing, as  it  does,  (1)  the  literary  activity  of  the  times,  (2)  the  institutional 
history,  (3)  the  contemporaneous  history,  (4)  the  great  lives  and  move- 
ments inside  the  nation  itself.  Our  next  task  is  to  ask  and,  as  definitely 
as  possible,  to  answer  these  questions  :  What  was  the  actual  product  of 
prophetic  activity  in  this  historical  period  ?  What  general  and  par- 
ticular results  were  achieved  by  the  prophets  in  connection  with  this 
historical  epoch  ?  What  new  truth  was  contributed  by  them  ?  What 
old  truth  received  new  emphasis,  and  took  on  new  expression  ?  In 
brief,  what  did  the  world  of  thought  possess  at  the  end  of  this  period 
which  it  would  not  have  possessed  if  in  the  history  of  Northern  Israel 
there  had  been  no  prophets  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    PRODUCT    OF    PROPHECY    AND    PROPHETISM    FROM    933-800    B.  C. 

§77.    The  Prophetic  Revolt  in  033  B.  C. — After  an   1  Kings  11:29 ff.; 

°  '  '  r  7JO  is:  1-20;  12:15. 

examination  of  1  Kings  1 2  : 1-20  and  1  Kings  1 1  :  26-31, ' 
consider  — 

1.  The  importance  of  the  part  played  in  this  revolt 
by  Ahijah,  together  with  (1)  the  significance  of  the  fact 
that  Ahijah  came  from  Shiloh  ;  (2)  the  explanation  of  the 
revolt  presented  by  the  writer  himself;  (3)  to  what  extent 
it  was,  perhaps,  a  contest  between  the  new  civilization  of 
Solomon's  times  and  the  narrower  spirit  of  the  past. 

2.  The  influence  which  may  have  been  exerted  by 
such  special  factors  as  (1)  the  democratic  spirit  in  gen- 
eral; (2)  the  objection  to  a  non-elective  or  hereditary 
monarchy;  (3)  jealousy  of  the  dominance  of  Judah  and  4:7-19. 
of  the  favor  shown  her  by  Solomon,  e.  g.,  in  excusing  her 
from  the  obligation  of  providing  for  the  king's  table; 

(4)  antagonism  (in  anticipation  of  Josiah's  reformation 
in  621  B.  C.)  to  the  temple-worship  emphasized  in  Jeru- 
salem in  opposition  to  the  more  liberal  and  popular 
system  of  local  sanctuaries ;  (5)  oppressive  taxation ;  (6) 
the  old  cleavage  between  the  north  and  south,  occasioned 
in  part  by  the  later  entrance  of  the  southern  clans  into 
Canaan  and  the  marked  difference  in  the  character  of  the 
two  regions,  as  illustrated,  e.  g.,  by  the  schism  after  the 

death  of  Saul,  and  by  the  conduct  of  Tudah  and  Israel    *  Sam.    19:11- 

15;  40-43; 
after  the  defeat  and  death  of  Absalom.  20:1-22. 

3.  The  definite  statements  attributing  the  revolt  to 
the  influence  of  the  prophets,  together  with  (1)  the  actual 
result  of  the  revolt  in  so  far  as  it  affected  prophecy ;  (2) 
the  contrast  between  the  situation  in  Northern  Israel  and 
in  Judah,  so  far  as  it  concerned  prophecy. 

4.  The  indorsement  of  the  act  by  a  later  writer,  and   1  Kings  11:32-39. 

'The  order  of  the  narrative  of  Jeroboam's  movements  varies  greatly  in  the  Septua- 
gint  from  that  found  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  The  two  narratives  should  be  carefully 
compared  and  estimated.  See,  e.  g.,  Burney,  Notes  on  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Books  of 
Kings,  pp.  163-69;  Skinner,  Kings  ("New-Century  Bible"),  pp.  443-46. 

73 


74  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

12:22-24.  his  expansion  of  the  explanation,  together  with  (1)  the 

further  indication  of  the  prophetic  attitude  through  She- 

Hos.  8:4;  13:11.     maiah ;  (2)  the  different  attitude  held  by  Hosea ;  (3)  the 

attitude  toward  Jeroboam  of  still  later  prophetism,  as  seen 

1  Kings,  chap.       in  the  story  of  the  prophet  from  Judah  and  in  the  story  of 
13;  14:1-19.         .  ...  ,        J 
Ahijah. 

5.  What  is  to  be  said  to  the  claims,  (1)  that  Jeroboam's 

practice  in  establishing  local  sanctuaries  was  merely  the 

continuation  of  the  national  practice;  (2)  that  the  use  of 

material  emblems  to  represent  Jehovah  was  nothing  new 

or  strange,    the    command    against    such    representation 

being  something  still  in   the   future;    and  (3)   that  the 

wholesale  condemnation  by  the  writer  in  Kings  represents 

the  opinion  of  a  later  generation,  and  not  even  that  of 

the  best  contemporary  thought  ? 

See :  WELLHAUSEN,  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Israel,  pp. 
457  f.;  Wade,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  312-23;  KENT,  A  History 
of  the  Hebrew  People,  Vol.  II,  pp.  16-25;  KuENEN,  The  Religion  of 
Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  198  f.;  Montefiore,  The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Hebrews,  pp.  83-86 ;  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
1 55_58;  Cheyne,  art.  "Jeroboam,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  White, 
art.  "Ahijah,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  J.  C.  Todd, 
Politics  and  Religion  in  Ancient  Israel,  pp.  90-99 ;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old 
Testament  History,  pp.  177-80 ;  Cornill,  History  of  the  People  of 
Israel,  pp.  93-96 ;  KlTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  241-46  ; 
Renan,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  Vol.  II,  pp.  149-54:  C.  F. 
Kent,  "Jeroboam  and  the  Disruption,"  Biblical  World,  Vol.  IV, 
pp.  38-48 ;  G.  A.  Cooke,  art.  "Jeroboam,"  Hastings's  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible;  Guthe,  art.  "Israel,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica,  col.  2238. 

Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte,  p.  92  ; 
WlNCKLER,  Alttestamentliche  Untersuchungen,  pp.  1-15;  Guthe, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp.  129-32  ;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes 
Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  344-49. 

Abo  the  commentaries  on  Kings  by  Skinner,  Burney,  Farrar, 
Kittel,  and  Benzinger. 

§  78.  The  Prophetic  Work  of  Elijah  must  be  gathered 
from  traditions  concerning  it,  in  the  absence  of  any 
writings  from  the  prophet  himself. 

1.  Make  a  study  of  1  Kings,  chaps.  17-19,  (1)  noting 
1  Kings  17:1a.  the  circumstances  of  Elijah's  first  appearance;  the  rniracu- 
17:2-24.  lous  preservation  of  his  life  ;  his  meeting  with  Ahab  ;  the 

18:18.  '  contest  between  the  prophet  and  the  king;   Elijah's  chal- 

18:19-41.  lenge  to  the  Baal  prophets  and  its  outcome;  the  storm 


PROPHECY    FROM    933-8OO    B.  C. 


75 


and  the  prophet's  flight;  his  journey  to  Horeb  and  his 
vision;  his  commission  to  Elisha;  and  (2)  consider  (a) 
the  real  point  at  issue  between  Ahab  and  Elijah,  viz., 
Baalistic  corruption  of  Jehovah-worship ;  (0)  Ahab's  situa- 
tion and  point  of  view ;  (c)  the  significance  of  the  presence 
of  so  many  Jehovah  prophets  and  so  many  Baal  prophets ; 
(a7)  the  role  of  Jezebel ;  (e)  what  was  involved  in  Baalism 
as  Elijah  saw  it;  (/)  the  victory  or  failure  of  Elijah's 
contest;  (g)  the  lesson  of  the  vision  at  Horeb,  viz.,  the 
presence  of  Jehovah  in  the  sound  of  gentle  stillness;  (h) 
Elijah's  accomplishment  of  the  commission  received  at 
Horeb. 

2.  Examine  1  Kings,  chap.  21,  the  story  of  Naboth's 
vineyard,  (1)  noting  the  account  of  the  seizure  of  the  vine- 
yard ;  the  prophet's  message  and  prediction ;  and  the 
fulfilment  in  connection  with  Jehu  ;  and  (2)  consider  (a) 
Ahab's  character  as  revealed  by  this  incident ;  {b)  the 
issue  here  between  Elijah  and  Ahab,  viz.,  righteousness 
in  government ;  (V)  its  later  interpretation  by  Jehu. 

3.  Formulate,  in  the  light  of  what  has  already  been 
done,  a  statement  covering  the  following  points:  (1) 
Ahab's  political  policy;  (2)  the  danger  which  was  involved 
in  it  to  the  Jehovah  religion ;  (3)  evidence  against  the 
supposition  that  Ahab  really  desired  to  substitute  the 
Baal  religion  for  that  of  Jehovah;  (4)  how  far  was  it  a 
political  as  well  as  a  religious  crisis?  (5)  did  Elijah 
distinguish  sharply  between  Baal  and  Jehovah?  (6)  what 
was  Elijah's  idea,  in  contrast  with  that  of  other  prophets 
of  his  time,  as  to  Jehovah's  relation  to  Israel  ?  (7)  the  con- 
ception of  Jehovah  which  especially  appealed  to  Elijah; 
(8)  the  ethical  idea  involved  in  his  stand  for  righteous 
administration  of  the  royal  office;  (9)  the  connection 
between  this  idea  and  his  conception  of  Jehovah. 

4.  Examine  later  allusions  to  Elijah  and  his  work, 
noting  (1)  the  story  of  his  translation;  (2)  the  expecta- 
tion of  his  return,  as  expressed  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  in  the  New  Testament  in  connection  with  John  the 
Baptist;  (3)  the  estimate  of  him  entertained  in  the  days 
of  the  son  of  Sirach  ;  (4)  other  references  in  the  New 
Testament,  representing  him  as  appearing  with  Moses  at 


18:42—19:4. 

19:5-18. 

19:19-21. 


18:4,  19;  cf.  22:6. 


19:  12. 


21 : 1-16. 

21: 17,  18,  20. 

2  Kings  9:  25,  26. 


2  Kings,  chap.  1. 

Mai.  4:5,  6; 
Matt.  17 :  12 ; 

cf.  27:47; 

Mark  15:35; 

John  1:35. 

Ecclus.  48 : 1  ff. 

Matt.  17:3; 
Mark  9:4; 
Luke  9 :  30. 


j6  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

the  transfiguration  of  Jesus ;  (5)  his  place  in  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, as  the  expected  guest  at  every  Passover;  (6)  his 
place  in  Greek  tradition,  in  connection  with  mountain- 
lore;  (7)  his  place  in  Mohammedan  tradition,  2&el-Hadir? 
the  possessor  of  eternal  youth  and  the  champion  of  the 
rights  of  men. 

5.  Consider,  still  further,  (1)  the  position  of  Elijah 
as  a  protestor  (cf.  the  Rechabites)  against  the  amenities 
of  civilization,  and  a  perpetuator  of  the  old  ideals  of 
the  nomadic  life;  (2)  his  attitude,  in  so  far  as  it  may  be 
discovered,  toward  ritual,  and  toward  the  law  as  it  is 
given,  for  example,  in  Deuteronomy;  (3)  his  attitude 
toward  idolatry  ;  (4)  was  he  a  monotheist,  or  rather  a 
henotheist?  (5)  in  what  particular  point  lay  his  great 
moral  power?  (6)  for  what,  in  brief,  does  he  stand  in  the 
progress  of  religious  life  and  thought? 

See  T.  K.  Cheyne,  The  Hallowing  of  Criticism  (1888);  Idem, 
art.  "Prophetic  Literature,"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  cols.  3859-63; 
Coknill,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  29-36 ;  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Prophets  of 
Israel  (2d  ed.),  pp.  76-89;  MONTEFIORE,  The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Hebrews,  pp.  91-94;  A.  B.  DAVIDSON,  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp. 
62-71 ;  KlTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  262-70;  Mc- 
Curdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  Vol.  I,  pp.  257-59; 
H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  187-94;  J.  Strachan,  art. 
"Elijah,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible ;  Wellhausen,  Prole- 
gomena to  the  History  of  Israel,  286-93;  W.  E.  Addis,  art.  "Elijah," 
Encyclopaedia  Biblica;  Renan,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  229-42;  Kent,  A  History  of  the  Hebrew  People,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
46-54  ;  J.  C.  Todd,  Politics  and  Religion  in  Ancient  Israel,  pp.  195— 
97;  Wade,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  335-39;  McFadyen,  The 
Messages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  Historians,  pp.  1 98-204 ; 
Kuenen,  Religion  of  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  355-57  ;  Robertson,  Early 
Religion  of  Israel  (see  Index);  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  241  f.,  297;  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet,  pp.  171-85. 

Gunkel,  Preussische  Jahrbiicher,  1898,  pp.  18-51;  Smend, 
Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte,  pp.  152-58; 
Maybaum,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthums, 
pp.  60-76 ;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion  pp.  82-87 
256;  Guthe,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp.  175-79;  Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  539-47;  Meinhold,  Studien 
zur  israelitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Band  I :  Der  heilige  Rest, 
pp.  2-32. 

Also  the  commentaries  on  Kings   by   Skinner,   Benzinger, 
Kittel,  Farrar,  and  Burney. 
2Wieland,  Legenden,  p.  177. 


PROPHECY    FROM    933-8OO    B.  C.  J  J 

§  79.  The  Prophetic  Work  of  Elisha  is  in  sharp  con- 
trast with  that  of  Elijah.  It  partakes  of  the  wonder- 
element  to  even  a  greater  extent.  Like  the  story  of 
Elijah,  it  is  contained  in  narratives  corning  from  different 
periods. 

1.  Make  a    study    of    Elisha's    introduction    to    the   1  Kings  19:19-31. 
prophetic  office,  (1)  noting  his  call ;  his  home  and  social 

standing;  the  question  he    asks,  with    Elijah's  answer; 

his  presence  with  Elijah  in  the  latter's  series  of  farewell  2  Kings  2: 1-6. 

visits  to  the  prophetic  societies;  his  investiture  in  office;  2:7. 

,  2  :  9  f . 

his  request  for  a  double  portion  of  Elijah's  spirit;  his  2:11-18. 
separation  from  Elijah;  and  (2)  consider  (a)  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  fact  that  Elijah's  work  was  to  be  completed 
by  one  who  by  birth  and  position  occupied  so  different 
a  social  place;  (b)  the  meaning  of  the  symbolical  action 
of  the  mantle ;  (c)  the  force  of  the  request  for  a  double 
portion  ;  (d)  the  controlling  motive  which  lies  back  of 
the  story  of  the  separation  by  the  whirlwind. 

2.  Study  the  miracles  ascribed  to  Elisha : 

a)  The  dividing  of  the  Jordan  with  Elijah's  mantle;  2Kings2:i4; 

b)  The  sweetening  of  the  waters;  2:19-22; 

c)  The  cursing  of  the  children  ;  2:23,  24; 

d)  The  providing  of  Jehoram's  armies  with  water;  3:16-20; 

e)  The  increase  of  the  widow's  cruse  of  oil;  4:1-7; 
/)  The  birth  of  a  son  to  the  Shunammite;  4:13-17; 
g)  The  raising  of  the  Shunammite's  son;  4:32-37; 
h)  The  healing  of  the  pottage;  4:38-41; 
/')  The  multiplication  of  the  loaves  and  grain;  4:42-44; 
j)   The  healing  of  Naaman's  leprosy  ;  5:1-14; 

k)  The  smiting  of  Gehazi  with  leprosy;  5:20-27; 

7)  The  making  of  the  axe-head  to  float;  6:1-7; 

ni)  The  smiting  of  the  Syrian  host  with  blindness;      6:14-23; 

n)  The  rising  of  a  corpse  on  touching  his  bones;  i3:2of. 
and  consider  (1)  the  extreme  cruelty  of  one  or  two, 
and  the  extreme  beneficence  of  the  great  majority ;  (2) 
their  close  association  with  the  work  of  the  prophetic 
societies  (see  §  7);  (3)  the  fact  that  they  represent  Elisha 
as  a  kind  of  wonder-worker  {cf.  also  the  traditions  of 
Elijah  and  Jonah);  (4)  the  resemblance,  in  some  cases, 
to  the  miracles  performed  by  Jesus ;  (5)  the  fact  that  we 


78 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


2  Kings  3: 11-20, 
6 : 8-23. 
6 :  24  ff . 

8:7-15;  9:1-13. 
13:14  c 


1  Kings  21 :  17-24: 

2  Kings  9:25  f. 

1  Kings  19: 16  f. ; 
2  Kings  2 :  13. 


2  Kings  1:2-4, 
16  f.;  6:8ff.; 
1 : 1 J  3  : 4  ff- ; 
9:  14—10:31. 


2  Kings  13 :  20  f . 
Ecclus.  48 :  12-14. 
Luke  4 :  27. 


2  Kings  4:  7,  9, 
16,  22,  etc. 


2: 11  f.;  3:15; 
6:  14-17; 

2  :  19  ff. ;  4  :  42  f. 
8:1,  etc. 


1  Kings  19 :  19  21. 


find  the  miracle-stories  so  abundant  in  connection  with 
Elijah  and  Elisha  as  compared  with  later  prophets. 

3.  Examine  the  account  of  Elisha's  various  dealings 
with  kings  and  rulers,  (1)  noting  his  presence  in  the  cam- 
paign against  Mesha,  king  of  Moab ;  his  magnanimous 
conduct  in  connection  with  the  entrapped  Syrians;  his 
prediction  of  relief  in  the  siege  of  Samaria  by  the  Syrians ; 
his  interview  with  Hazael ;  his  anointing  of  Jehu;  the 
death-bed  scene  with  Joash,  Jehu's  grandson ;  and  (2) 
consider  (a)  his  political  activity  and  his  character  as  a 
statesman ;  (b)  his  gentleness  and  magnanimity;  (c)  the 
responsibility  of  prophetism  for  the  revolt  of  Jehu  and 
its  consequences;  (d)  the  general  nature  of  the  predic- 
tions which  he  utters  ;  (e)  the  long  duration  of  his  service. 

4.  Study,  in  particular,  the  revolt  of  Jehu  as  instigated 
by  Elisha,  and  consider  (1)  the  position  taken  by  Elijah; 
(2)  the  presence  of  Jehu  when  Ahab  receives  Elijah's 
rebuke;  (3)  the  commission  of  Elijah  as  executed  by 
Elisha;  (4)  the  misfortunes  suffered  by  Israel  which  could 
be  interpreted  as  indications  of  Jehovah's  displeasure 
with  the  attitude  of  Ahab  and  his  immediate  successors 
toward  Baalism,  e.  g.,  the  death  of  Ahab  in  battle ;  the 
accidental  killing  of  his  son  Ahaziah ;  the  breaking  out 
again  of  the  Syrian  wars ;  the  revolt  of  Moab  ;  (5)  the 
actual  facts  of  the  so-called  reformation ;  (6)  the  history 
of  Baalism  in  Israel  and  Judah  after  this  time;  (7)  the 
significance  of  all  this  for  prophecy. 

5.  Examine  later  allusions  to  Elisha  and  his  work, 
noting  (1)  the  story  of  restoration  to  life  after  contact 
with  Elisha's  bones;  (2)  the  eulogy  pronounced  upon 
him  by  the  son  of  Sirach ;  (3)  the  only  mention  in  the 
New  Testament. 

6.  Consider:  in  general  (1)  the  significance  of  the 
title  "man  of  God"  used  of  Elisha,  in  ail,  twenty-nine 
times  ;  (2)  the  full  sense  in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have 
finished  the  work  of  Elijah  ;  (3)  his  relation  to  the  pro- 
phetic societies  (§§  7,  80);  (4)  his  visions,  and  his  use  of 
music  in  ecstasy;  (5)  his  easy  familiarity  with  the  people 
and  his  fondness  for  human  companionship  ;  (6)  his  agri- 
cultural disposition,  as  compared  with  Elijah's  anomadic 


PROPHECY  FROM  933-8OO  B.  C.  79 

tastes;  (7)  his  entire   lack  of  originality  {cf.  Elijah);   (8)    2Kings4:iff. 
was  the  sum  of  his  religion  "to  visit  the  fatherless  and 
widows  in  their  affliction"? 

See  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel  (2d  ed.)  pp.  85,  87,  116, 
131,  208;  Cornill,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  13  f.,  33;  McFadyen, 
Messages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  Historians,  pp.  206-12 ; 
McCurdy,  History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  §§  239-44,  61 2, 
935;  A.  B.  Davidson,  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  49,  291 ;  Todd, 
Politics  and  Religion  in  Ancient  Israel,  pp.  112,  1 41-44,  1 51-56; 
Strachan,  art.  "  Elisha,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  W.  E. 
Addis,  art.  "Elisha,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  Wellhausen,  Prole- 
gomena to  the  History  of  Israel,  p.  463  ;  KlTTEL,  History  of  the  Hebrews, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  214  f.,  268,  278,  280  ff.,  290,  292  f.;  Kent,  History  of 
the  Hebrew  People,  Vol.  II,  pp.  61-69;  RENAN,  History  of  the  People 
of  Israel,  Vol.  II,  pp.  229  ff.;  Wade,  Old  Testament  History,  pp. 
336,  339.  34I_43-  35 l  f-5  Montefiore,  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Hebrews,  pp.  94  f.;  Kuenen,  Religion  of  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  360  ff.; 
hlBVOJi,  Sermons  on  Old  Testament  Subjects,  pp.  195,  334;  Ottley, 
A  Short  History  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  173  f.,  178  ;  ROBERTSON,  Early 
Religion  of  Israel '(1896),  pp.  53,  61,  84  f.,  225;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testa- 
ment Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  241,  243,  297;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testa- 
ment History,  p.  206. 

DlLLMANN,  Handbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Theologie,  pp.  167, 
172  ff.,  481  ;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsge- 
schichte,  pp.  80,  82,  90,  150,  158  f.;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israeliti- 
schen  Religion,  pp.  85,  1 34  ;  Maybaum,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israeliti- 
schen  Prophetenthums,  pp.  76-81  ;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes 
Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  542  ff.;  Guthe,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  pp. 
175-79- 

§  80.  Other  Prophets  and  the  Prophetic  Societies  deserve 

our  attention.     Note  must  be  made  of  (1)  "the  man  of  1  Kings  13 : 1-32. 

God  who   came  out  of  Judah;"  (2)  the  "old    prophet  22:9,13-28. 

in  Bethel ;  "  (3)  Micaiah  ben  Imlah ;  (4)  Jonah  ben  Amittai,  2  Kings  14: 25. 

(5)  the  dervish  who  encountered  Ahab;  (6)  Jonadab  ben  1  Kings  20:35-43. 

Rechab ;  and,  indeed,  the  many  whose   names  have  not 

come  down  to  us. 

1.  Consider  (1)  the  fact  that  in  the  davs  of  Elijah  and   1  Kings  22:6; 

18  *  4 
Elisha  the  prophets  are  numbered  by  hundreds;  (2)  the 

presence  of  a  class  known  as  nazirites,  who  resemble  the  cf.  Judg.,  chap. 

prophets  in   some  ways,  and  are  spoken  of  by  Amos  in  AmosVn  f.*  "' 

connection  with  them  ;  (3)  the  account  of  another  order 

or  family  founded  by  Jonadab,  who  was  a  co-worker  with  2  Kings  10:151, 

Jehu  against  Baalism  ;  (4)  the  fact  that  at  this  time  (as  in  cJ-ier->c  aP-35. 

that  of  Samuel)  the  prophetic  societies  were  flourishing. 


80  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

2.  Go  back  to  Samuel's  times  and  recall  (i)  that  Samuel 

i  Sam.  10:5.  was  called  a  seer;   but  (2)   that  in  his  days  there  were 

bands  of  dervishes  wandering  about,  (a)  with  whom  Saul 

10:9-12;  10:5.        became  identified,  to  the  amazement  of  his  friends;  (i>) 

19:19-24.  who  stimulated  their  activity  by  music;  (V)  who  some- 

2  Kings  9:11.        times  became  frenzied   and  stripped   themselves  of  all 

outer  clothing;  (d)  who,  indeed,  were  called  "mad"  by 

those  who  knew  them ;  (3)  that  these  dervishes  (called 

nebhiim)  were  wholly  religious  in  their  character,  in  con- 

1  Sam.  9:6-10.        trast  with  the  seer,  who  was  probably  secular  {cf.  the  story 

10:5;  19:20.  of  Saul,  his  servant,  and  the  lost  asses);  (4)  that  Samuel 

was  probably  not  the  director  of  these  bands  in  his  day, 

but  was  entirely  distinct  from  them;  (5)  that  Elijah,  one 

of  their  number,  a  true  fanatic  in   the  good  sense,  and 

wholly  religious  in  his  interests,  rose  so  high  above  his 

fellows  as  to  become  their  leader,  and  as  such  occupied 

a  plane  far  higher  than  that  of  the  order  itself;  (6)  that 

these  forces  were  organized  and  used  by  Elisha  in  the 

1  Sam.  10:5;         struggle  against  Baalism  {cf.  their  various   headquarters 

4:1,38;  6:1;      at  Gibeah,  Ramah,  Gilgal,  Mount  Ephraim,  Bethel,  and 

Jericho). 

3.   Consider,  now,  (1)  the  relation  which  these  pro- 
phetic  communities   or   societies   sustained    toward    the 
people  at  large  and  the  estimate  in  which  they  were  held 
by  the  people;  (2)  their  relation,  likewise,  to  the  priests; 
Cf.  Jer. 29: 26;       (3)  the  fact  that  the  service  of  "prophesying"  was  a  joint 

1  Sam.  19:20.         act,  presided  over  by  one  of  their  number;  (4)  the  occur- 
i9:i8ff.  rence  of  sacred   processions   as  at  the    "dwellings"  in 

2  Sam. 6 : 5 ;  isa.     Ramah;  (5)  the  use  of  music  (hand-drum   and  pipe)  as 

30 : 29 . 

1  Kings, chap.  18.   on  other  festal  occasions;  (6)  the  more  violent   exercises 
of  the  Baal-prophets;  (7)  the  suggestion  that  the  institu- 
tion known  as  the  prophetic  order  was  adopted  from  the 
religion  of  the  Canaanites.3 
20:35-43-  4.  Consider,  also,  (1)  the  story  of   the   dervish,  his 

20:41.  fanaticism,  the  marks  between   his   eyes;  (2)  the   hairy 

3  Consider,  in  this  connection,  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  the  earliest  known 
instance  of  prophetic  ecstasy  occurred  at  Byblos  in  northern  Syria,  that  it  was  at  the 
royal  court,  and  that  it  was  in  connection  with  a  transaction  involving  both  religion 
and  national  policy.  The  incident  is  related  by  an  Egyptian  legate  to  Byblos  about 
1 1 00  B.C.  in  the  report  which  he  made  to  his  Egyptian  prince.  An  English  transla- 
tion of  this  report  by  J.  H.  Breasted  may  be  found  in  The  American  Journal  of 
Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,^  o\  XXI  (1905),  pp.  100-109;  see  especiallyp.  105. 


PROPHECY    FROM    933-8OO    B.C.  8 1 

mantle  worn  by  these  prophets  ;  (3)  the  use  of  music  (see  Cf.  Zech.  13:4. 
above);  (4)  the  "madness"  often  attributed  to  them  (see  • 
above);  (5)  the  fact  that  they  have  become  an  order  or 
guild;  and  compare  with  this  (a)  the  companies  of 
modern  Mohammedan  dervishes;  {b)  the  pre-Mohamme- 
dan  dervishes;  {c)  uncontrolled  religious  enthusiasm  as 
sometimes  witnessed  today. 

5.  Note  (1)  the  attitude  of  Amos  a  little  later,  toward  Amos  7:14- 
all  this  class,  in  denying  that  he  is  one  of  them;  (2)  the   7:". 
understanding  of  Amaziah  who,  in  spite  of  the  prophet's 
denial,  classes  him  as  one  of  them;  (3)  the  attitude  of   1  Kings  22 :  19-23. 
Micaiah  ben  Imlah  toward  them;    (4)  the  really  funda- 
mental  and    remarkable   difference  between   Amos  and 
Hosea,  as   compared  with  these   professional   prophets; 
and  consider  (a)  the  stages  of  development  from  Samuel 
(originally  only  a  seer)  through  Elijah  (a  religious  fanatic 
of  the  noblest  type),  to  Amos  (a  prophet  in  the  highest 
sense);  (6)  the  character  of  these  hundreds  of  prophets  of   13: 1  ff. 
a  lower  type  ;  {c)  the  careers  of   such  prophets  as  the 
"man  of  God  from  Judah,"  the  prophet  of  Bethel,  on   13:1-32- 
the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  of  such  a  man  as  Jonah   2  Kings  14:  5 
ben  Amittai,  who  was  adviser  to  Jeroboam  II. 

See  on  the  prophetic  societies  the  literature  on  p.  48,  and : 
Cheyne,  art.  "Prophetic  Literature,"  §8,  Encyclopedia  Biblica; 
A.  B.  Davidson,  art.  "  Prophecy  and  Prophets,"  Hastings's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,  Vol.  IV,  p.  109;  Cornill,  Prophets  of  Israel, 
pp.  12-15,  28;  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  85  f.,  389-92; 
Robertson,  Early  Religion  of  Israel,  pp.  83  ff. ;  Schultz,  Old 
Testament  Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  240  ff.;  Montefiore,  Religion  of 
the  Ancient  Hebrews,  pp.  76  ff.;  Kent,  History  of  the  Hebrew 
People,  Vol.  II,  pp.  63-65  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  Book  of  the  Twelve  Proph- 
ets, Vol.  I,  pp.  26  f.;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testament  History,  p. 
193;  BUDDE,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp.  100  ff.;  KueNEN, 
Religion  of  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  193-202,  316  ff.;  Wellhausen,  Prole- 
gomena to  the  History  of  Israel,  p.  461  ;  KlTTEL,  History  of  the 
Hebrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  265  ff.;  W.  R.  Harper,  Amos  and  Hosea  (1905), 
pp.  xlix-lviii. 

Maybaum,  Die  Entwickelung  des  israelitischen  Prophetenthums, 
pp.  30-59 ;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  476-79  ; 
Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte,  pp.  79- 
94;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israelitischen  Religion,  pp.  81  f.,  121  ff.; 
Schw ALLY,  Semilische  Kreigsaltertiimer,  Heft  I  (1901),  pp.  103-105  • 
Franckh,  "Die  Prophetie  in  der  Zeit  vor  Amos,"  Beitrdge  zur 
Fbrderung  Christl.  Theologie,  IX  (1905),  pp.  29-65. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY   HISTORIES 

§81.  Understanding  that  the  Judean  Prophetic  Narra- 
tive Called  J  (§  58,  1)  had  its  origin  in  Southern  Israel 
between  800  and  850  B.  C,  we  may  ask  ourselves: 
What  was  its  message?  What  ideas,  new  and  old,  con- 
cerning God,  and  man,  and  life  did  it  teach  to  the 
people  of  that  period  ?  This  message,  we  must  note,  is  not 
the  story,  nor  the  series  of  stories,  which  J  contains,  but 
the  lesson  which  these  stories  were  meant  to  convey.  It 
will  be  discovered  by  (a)  analyzing  the  stories  one  by 
one,  {b)  determining  the  underlying  ideas,  and  (e)  study- 
ing the  point  of  connection  between  these  ideas  and  the 
times  of  the  prophet  who  tells  the  story.  The  following 
selections  will  perhaps  indicate  the  scope  of  the  narra- 
tive and  furnish  a  basis  for  the  inquiry  proposed. 

Gen. 2:46— 3:21.  1.  The  formation  of  man  after  the  animals;  the  gar- 

den of  Eden,  and  the  temptation  ;  sin,  followed  by  the 
curse  and  expulsion  from  the  garden. 

4:1-26.  2.  The  murder  of  Abel  by  Cain;  the  building  of  the 

first  city,  and  the  progress  of  sin  in  the  development  of 
the  arts  of  civilization. 

6:1-8;  7:1-5, 7-10,  2.  The  sinful  intercourse  between  angels  and  women, 

12.  176,22!;  8:  ° 

6-12,  136,20-22.   the  birth  of  giants;  further  development  of  sin,  followed 
by  the  deluge,  in  which  all  are  destroyed  save  the  family 
of  Noah. 
9:18-27;    11:1-9;  4.  The  besnnnin^  of  vine-culture  and  drunkenness; 

11:28  ff.;    12:1-  S  6 

4a.  the  further  growth  of  sin,  followed  by  the  confusion  of 

tongues    and    the    dispersion,    with    the    selection    of 

Abraham's  line. 

16:16,2,4-14:19:  c.  The  stories  of  the  several  collateral  branches  of 

30-38;   24:1  — 
25:6.  Abraham's    family,  viz.,    Moab    and  Ammon,    Ishmael, 

Arab  descendants  through  Keturah,  and  others,  with  the 

selection  of  Isaac's  line. 

252f!~246'  56^'  6.  The  stories  of  Esau  and  Jacob,  with  the  account  of 

*£.  'e8^0'  a4-  Jacob's  sons. 

82 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  83 

7.  The  story  of  Joseph,  sold  into  Egypt,  who  becomes  39: 1-23; 43: 1—44: 
Pharaoh's  chief  minister,  with  the  settlement  of  Jacob      6*- 

and  his  sons  in  Egypt. 

8.  The   oppression  of    Israel   in   Egypt;  Moses;  his   Exod.  1:15-200, 

rr  nj  r    '  21 ;  2:1-10;  3:1, 

soiourn   in  Midian  ;  his  commission  ;  the  struggle  with      46.6,96-13,15, 

J  °°  21  f. ;  4:17!;  5: 

Pharaoh,  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  march  to      11,4:7:15,176, 

r  c  206,  23 ;  etc. 

Sinai. 

q.  The    covenant    made    at    Sinai ;    the    revolt    and   Exod.,  chaps.  20- 

.  23;  32:1-6,  15- 

massacre ;  the   iourney   toward   Canaan;    the  spying   of      24,  35;  Numb. 

J  J  r J       °  13:20,    21a,    23, 

the  land;  the  determination  of  the  route  around  Edom      24,  266;  14:25; 

20:16,     14-18, 
and  Moab  and  through  the  kingdom  of  Sihon.  21a,  220;  etc. 

10.  The  stories  of  Balaam.  Numb.  22:8-10, 

12-16,  etc. 

11.  The  story  of  the  death  of  Moses,  and  of  Joshua,   Deut.    34:51.; 

,  .  ,  r     ,       ,        ,  ,  r       Josh.  i:if.,  10, 

his  successor;  the  passage  of  the  Jordan  ;  the  capture  of      3:654:41;  6:1, 
Jericho  and  Ai;  the  covenant  made  at  Shechem.  8 :  18,  ;24 ; ' chap! 

Keep  in  mind  (1)  that  J  is  history  (not  like  D,  §  29,  5,  24* 
which  is  largely  legal),  and  that  this  history  indicates  the 
spirit  of  the  prophet  (not,  like  P,  §  29,  5,  which  is  strongly 
priestly);  (2)  that  J,  like  other  prophets,  speaks  for  God, 
i.  e.,  he  interprets  the  events  of  past  times  from  the  point 
of  view  of  God,  as  he  conceives  him  ;  (3)  that  J  selects 
only  such  material  as  will  enable  him  to  accomplish  the 
purpose  he  has  in  mind  ;  (4)  that  his  selection,  therefore, 
will  be  greatly  affected  by  his  thought  concerning  God 
and  sin,  i.  e.,  by  the  thought  on  these  subjects  which  he 
wishes  to  present  to  his  contemporaries.1 

§82.  Constructive  Study. —  Study  each  section  of  J  included  in  the 
analysis  given  above  (§  81),  with  a  view  to  collecting  data  that  will 
throw  light  upon  the  following  heads  : 

1.  The  prophetic  character  of  the  narrative. 

2.  The  idea  of  God  which  it  represents,  including  all  references  to 
an  overruling  providence. 

3.  The  idea  entertained  concerning  man  and  his  relation  to  God, 
sin,  and  deliverance. 

4.  The  ethical  standards  which  the  narrative  seems  to  advocate. 

5.  The  attitude  indicated  toward  forms  of  worship. 

'The  pragmatic  element  in  J  (and  in  E)  is,  of  course,  but  slightly  manifest,  if 
we  compare  it  with  the  later  representation  of  this  same  element  in  D  and  P.  At  the 
same  time,  neither  J  nor  E  may  be  regarded  as  a  collection  of  uncolored  folk-lore. 
Cf.  George  F.  Moore,  art.  "  Historical  Literature,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica. 


54  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

6.  The  feeling  of  the  writer  toward  outside  nations  and  his  idea  of 
Israel's  future  as  a  nation. 

7.  The  degree  of  importance  attached  to  the  land  of  Canaan  and 
the  representations  made  concerning  it. 

§  83.  The  Prophetic  Element  in  the  narrative  as  a 
whole  should  be  formulated.  In  connection  with  such 
effort  — 

1.  Study  the  general  framework  of  the  narrative, 
from   the  story  of  Eden   to  the  settlement  in  Canaan ; 

(1)  Is  a  definite  purpose  to  be  discovered?     Does  the 
purpose  relate  to  the  origin   of  the  people  of  Israel  ? 

(2)  Is  there  evidence  of    a  desire   to   connect   Jehovah 
with  this  origin  and  with  the  subsequent  development  ? 

2.  Is  the  spirit  throughout  that  of  insight  into 
Jehovah's  plans,  recognition  of  the  consequences  of  sin, 
encouragement  toward  higher  ideals  of  life  ? 

3.  Is  there  a  reflective  element  to  be  seen  in  the  fond- 
Gen.  6:1-4;  6:5—   ness    for    incorporating    (1)    songs    and    sayings    which 

8 :22  ;  9 :20. 

Gen.  16:13 ;Exoa.   involve    anthropological    observations?    or  (2)   remarks 

15:23;   Numb.  ,  j 

11:34;  Gen.  32:  which  contain  reference  to  the  origin  of  customs  and  of 
names?  (3)  Is  it  possible  to  make  out  quite  clearly  a 
definite  purpose  which,  one  may  suppose,  explains  the 
presence  in  the  collection  of  a  given  story,  or,  at  all 
events,  its  general  form  and  coloring  ? 
Numb.   22:36-36;         4.  Is  there  evident  everywhere  a  strong  interest  in  the 

24 : 1—25 :3ft/ 

josh. 7: a— 8:23-  national,  as  distinguished  from  the  institutional?  side  of 
affairs  ?  Why  is  this  element  to  be  treated  as  pre- 
eminently prophetic? 

5.  To  what  extent  is  the  predictive  element  present? 
Gen.  3:14, 15.         Consider,  e.  g.,  (1)   the   first  prediction   concerning  the 
history  of  sin,  its  long  struggle  with  mankind,  but  the 
final  triumph  of  humanity,  though  wounded  in  the  con- 
gee, 27.  flict;  (2)   the  representation  of  the  relations  of  Shem, 
Gen.  12:1-3;  13:    Ham,  and  Japheth  ;  (3)  the  patriarchal  blessings  (involv- 
27:27-29.  ing  great  numbers,  great  prosperity,  and  blessing  to  the 
49:8-12.                world)  placed  in  the  mouth  of  (a)  Abraham,  {b)  Isaac,  and 
Numb.  24:17-19.     (c)  Jacob;  (4)  the  forecast  of  Israel's  future  relation  to  the 
nations.     How  far,  now,  are  these  utterances  the  very  mes- 
a  The  narrative  of  the  origin  of  the  Passover  (Exod.  12  :  3-16)  is  the  only  instance 
in  which  extended  consideration  is  given  in  J  to  any  institution. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  85 

sageoi  the  prophet  for  his  times,  and  placed  for  rhetorical 
and  homiletical  purposes  in  the  form  of  prediction  ? 

6.  Is  there  to  be  noted  throughout  the  narrative  a 
tendency  toward  idealism  ?  Just  how  can  this  best  be  de- 
fined ?    Does  the  writer  present  pictures  of  life,  which  he 
would  have  his  contemporaries  observe  in  order  that  their 
life,  still  lower  than  the  ideals  presented,  may  be  lifted  to 
a  higher  plane  ?     Consider  the  picture  thus  presented  in 
the  pen -portrait  of  (1)  Abraham,  representing  the  ideals   Gen.  12: 1-40,6-8; 
of  intimate  acquaintance  and  communion  with  Jehovah; 
(2)  Isaac  and  Jacob,  representing  the   superiority  of  the   26:6-14^16, 19-33^ 
Hebrews   in   all  relations  with  other  peoples  because  of      Mi  32:43-5°. 
their  especial   relation   to  Jehovah  ;    (3)  Joseph,   repre-   39:ms;«-*— 44- 
senting  the  vindication   and   triumph  of  the  pure  and 
upright,  notwithstanding  the    machinations    of    wicked 
opponents;  (4)  the  oppression  in  Egypt  and  deliverance   Exod^8'12' |f|j 
from   the  same,  representing    the    wonderful    power  of      15a;  8:20— 9:7; 
Jehovah  in  triumphing  over  the  mighty  gods  of  Egypt;      34;  etc. 

(5)  the  giving  of  the  law  on   Sinai,  teaching  the  awful   Exod.  19:20-35; 
sanctity  of  Jehovah  and  the  absolute  authority  of  his  law; 

(6)  Moses,  representing  the  ideal  of  a  national   leader,  N"mb\  xf:^5; 
taking  every  step  in  absolute  dependence  upon  the  guid- 
ance of  Jehovah;  (7)  Joshua,  representing  courage  and   Josh.  5-.i3-»m- 
success    due    to    obedience    to   Jehovah's    command    to      17,19-23. 
exterminate  the  Canaanites. 

§84.  Constructive  Study.— Consider  the  message,  in  general, 
intended  for  people  living  800  to  850  B.  C.  contained  in  a  presenta- 
tion of  (1)  Israel's  actual  origin  under  circumstances  of  so  peculiar 
and  elevated  a  character ;  (2)  the  origin  of  Israel's  neighbors  under 
circumstances  of  an  entirely  opposite  character ;  (3)  the  origin  of 
customs  (e.  g.,  marriage)  and  of  names  (<?.  g.,  Jacob  and  Israel);  (4) 
stories  like  that  of  Cain  and  Abel,  or  the  angels  and  women,  or  the 
elevation  of  Joseph,  or  deliverance  from  Egypt,  or  the  giving  of  the 
law  on  Sinai ;  (5)  so  many  points  relating  to  the  nation  as  such,  at  a 
time  when  Israel  believed  herself  to  be  a  nation  side  by  side  with  other 
nations;  (6)  predictions  assuring  plenty  and  prosperity,  the  degrada- 
tion of  enemies,  and  victory  and  world-power  for  Israel  herself;  (7) 
pictures  of  ideal  life  for  individual  and  for  nation. 

§  85.  The  Conception  of  God,  of    supernatural  beings, 
and   of   an   overruling  providence  is  after  all,  the  most 


86  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

fundamental   element  in   the  message  of    any  prophet. 
What  was  J's  conception  of  God  ? 
Gen.  4:26.  1.    Consider   (1)    the   significance   of    the    fact    that 

Jehovah  is  everywhere,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  end, 
the  name  and  title  of  the  Deity;  (2)  the  principal  mean- 
ings which  have  been  suggested  for  Jehovah.3 

2.  Inquire  into  (1)  the  writer's  representation  of 
Jehovah  as  doing  many  things  ordinarily  ascribed  to 
men,  some  of  them  being  quite  undignified  ;  e.  g.,  (a) 

2:7;  8:21;  11:7.  as  molding,  blowing,  smelling,  coming  down;  also  (b) 
32:24-30;  Exod.  as  fearing,  repenting,  arguing,  etc.;  note,  further,  (c)  the 
still  more  strange  representations  in  the  stories  of  the 
wrestling  of  Jacob  and  the  circumcision  of  Moses;  and 
(2)  the  proper  interpretation  of  this  material  (a)  as 
expressing  J's  conception  of  God  (6)  as  reflecting  the 
opinion  of  J's  times. 

3.  Note  the  agents  through  whom  Jehovah  is  repre- 

Gen.  16:7;  24:7,   sented  as  acting  in  his  intercourse  with  men,  viz.,  (1) 

40;  Exod.  3:2;  &  »  >  \   / 

angels — what  was  the  idea  entertained  in  J's  times  of  the 

Numb.  22:22.         nature,  abode,  and  function   of  angels?  (2)  captains  of 
Josh.  5:13-15.  o.  \  /        r 

the  hosts —  what  is  meant  by  "hosts"  in  this  phrase,  and 
Exod.  13:21.  in  the  phrase  "Jehovah  of  hosts?"4    (3)  "pillar  of  cloud 

3  For  example:  (1)  "The  One  who  is"  (Lieblein);  (2)  the  Hebrew  equivalent  of 
the  name  of  one  of  the  Egyptian  gods  of  light  (Roth,  Geschichte  unserer  abend- 
landischen  Philosophic, Vol.  I,  p.  175,  note);  (3)  a  translation  of  the  Egyptian  phrase 
"Nuk  pu  nuk"  (Wahrmund,  Babylonierthum,  Israeliterthum  und  Christenthum,  p. 
119);  (4)  "He  will  be"  (RASHI;  Ewald,  Die  Lehre  der  Bibel  von  Gott,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
337  f-);  (5)  "He  who  causes  (rain  or  lightning)  to  fall"  (W.  R.  Smith,  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Jewish  Church,  p.  423);  (6)  "The  Feller"  or  "Destroyer"  (Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  Vol.  I,  p.  429);  (7)  "He  who  causes  to  be,"  i.  e.,  "the 
Creator"  (Lagarde;  Schrader  ;  SCHULTZ,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol.  II,  p.  134); 
(8)  "The  Breather"  (Wellhausen).  The  meaning  and  origin  of  the  name  are 
discussed  in  Schultz,  Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  117-39;  Driver,  Studia 
Biblica,  Vol.  I  (1885),  pp.  1-20 ;  Spoer,  "  Origin  and  Interpretation  of  the  Tetra- 
grammaton,"  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages,  Vol.  XVIII  (1901),  pp.  9-35; 
Budde,  Religion  0/  Israel  to  the  Exile,  pp.  1-38 ;  Barton,  A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins, 
Social  and  Religious,  pp.  269-308  ;  Baudissin,  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religions- 
geschichte,  Vol.  I,  pp.  179-254  ;  E.  KAUTZSCH,  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
Vol.  V,  pp.  625  f.;  DELITZSCH,  Babel  and  Bible  (translated  by  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  1903), 
pp.71  f.,  133  ff. 

4  For  the  meaning  of  this  phrase  see  Lohr,  Un/ersuchungen  zum  Buch  Amos,  pp. 
37-67;  Driver,  art.  "Lord  of  Hosts,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  G.  A. 
Smith,  Book  of  the   Twelve  Prophets,  Vol.  I,  pp.  57  f.;  E.  Kautzsch,  Zeitschrift  fur 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  87 

and  fire" — what  is  the  force  of  the  symbolism  in  this 

phrase?  (4)  a  presence — what  is  meant  by  this  ?  Exod.  33:14. 

4.  Study  other  representations  concerning  Jehovah 

made  by  T  :  (0  the  instances  in  which  his  name  is  known    Gen.  10:9;  24:31. 

J   J      \    /  Numb.,  chaps.  23 

and    his    worship    accepted    outside    of    Israel;  (2)   the      and 24. 

*  x  Gen.  26:24 ;  20:13 ; 

meaning  of  the  references  to  his  being  the  God  of  the      Exod.  3: 16  54:5. 
patriarchs,   Abraham,   Isaac,   and  Jacob;  (3)  as  God  of   gen.  24:3, 7. 
heaven  and  earth;  (4)  as  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth;  (5)   Exod  14:216,  25; 

v^'  J         °  JOSh.  IO:l2f. 

as  a  God  of  unrestricted  power;   (6)  as  a  moral   God,   Gen,  3:1-24;  6:5! 

r  >    \    /  Gen.  19-16;  24:27; 

hating:  sin;  (7)  as  a  God  of  mercy  to  those  who  are  in      Exod.  34:6. 

o  *    \»/  J  Gen.    9:15-17; 

distress;  (8)  as  a  God  of  everlasting  faithfulness  to  those      18:19;    21:33; 

'  v  '  °  28:156. 

who  are  his   people;  (9)  as  a  God  "with"  and  "in  the   Gen.  26:3;  28:15; 

r       "      '    yy/  39:2;  Numb.  14: 

midst  of"  his  worshipers.  96. 

5.  Observe  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  idea  of  an 
overruling  providence,  (1)  in  which  the  heroes  have  an 
abiding  faith ;   (2)  of  which  the  progress   is  "irresistible 

and  triumphant,"  against  (a)  the  nation  when  antagonis-   Numb.  11:31-35. 
tic;  (&)  the  individual  whose   sin  takes  on   the  form  of  Numb.    16:266, 

1.  ,.  /  \      1  •  ,  •  27c-3i,        33a; 

cowardice,  fraud,  or  malice;  or  (c)  the  nation  whose  sin      Josh.  7:2-26. 

'  v  '  Numb.  14:41-45- 

takes  on  the  form  of  blindness,  cruelty,  or  deceit. 

§  86.  Constructive  Study. —  Formulate  briefly  (on  the  basis  of  §  85) 
J's  teaching  to  his  times  concerning  God;  and,  in  connection  with  the 
statement  thus  formulated,  (1)  show  the  progress  in  this  teaching  seen 
in  comparing  the  grossly  anthropomorphic  representation  with  other 
representations  seemingly  inconsistent  and  vastly  higher ;  (2)  compare 
this  teaching  with  that  of  Elijah  and  Elisha;  (3)  indicate  the  signifi- 
cance, for  J's  times,  of  his  idea  that  Jehovah  has  been  worshiped  as 
such  from  the  earliest  days  of  history  and  is  so  recognized  by  people 
of  other  nations;  (4)  indicate  those  attributes  of  God  found  in  J  which 
are  new;  (5)  indicate  those  attributes  which  are  taken  up  and  empha- 
sized by  later  prophets;  e.  g.,  is  not  the  use  of  "with"  (see  above)  an 
anticipation  of  Isaiah's  Immanuel?  Is  not  his  doctrine  of  a  God  of 
mercy  the  basis  for  Hosea's  doctrine  of  divine  love?     Are  there  perhaps 

die  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  Vol.  VI  (1886),  pp.  17-22;  Idem,  art.  "Names," 
§  123,  Encyclopedia  Biblica;  Idem,  art.  "Religion  of  Israel,"  Hastings's  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  Vol.  V,  pp.  636  f.;  Ewald,  History  of  Israel,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  62;  Schultz, 
Old  Testament  Theology,  Vol.  II,  p.  141;  SMEND,  Lehrbttch  der  alttestamentlichen 
Religionsgeschichte,  pp.  185-88;  WELLHAUSEN,  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten,  Vol.  V,  p- 
77;  SCHWALLY,  Semitische  Kriegsalterth timer,  Vol.  I,  p.  5  ;  Ewald,  Die  Lehre  der 
Bibel  von  Gott,  Vol.  II,  p.  339;  Borchert,  Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken  (1896), 
pp.  619  ff. 


88  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

other  cases  of  anticipation?  (6)  indicate  the  divine  attributes  on  which 
J  seems  to  lay  greatest  emphasis  ;  (7)  show  the  peculiar  appropriateness 
for  J's  times  of  the  doctrine  of  an  overruling  providence  as  it  is  pre- 
sented by  J  in  his  resume  of  the  patriarchal  period. 

§  87.  J's  Conception  of  Man,  his  relation  to  God,  and 

of  sin   and  deliverance,  naturally  depends  closely  upon 

his  doctrine  of  God,  the  one  being  a  corollary  of  the 

other.     What  is  it  ? 
Gen.  2:4^-9,  15-  1.  Consider  (1)    the    story    of    the    origin   of    man, 

including  as  it  does  the  idea  of  molding  from  clay,  the 

contemporaneous  origin  of  animals,  and   the  later  crea- 
2:7.  tion  of  woman;  (2)  the  writer's  teaching  of  the  dualism 

of  human   nature,  the  two  elements  being  matter  (dust) 
8:21.  and  spirit,  each   being   independent   of   the   other;  (3) 

the  character  of  man,  viz.,  "evil  from  his  youth."     (4) 

Is  it  of  man  as  an  individual,  or  of  the  people  as  a  whole, 

that  this  prophet  speaks  ? 
Gen.  3:1-^1.  2.  Study  (1)  the   account  of    the  beginning  of  sin 

3.15,  through   disobedience;  (2)  the   forecast  of  the  struggle 

between  sin  and  humanity,  a  struggle  in  which  man  will 
4:1-34.  at  last  be  victor;  (3)  the  representation  of  the  writer  that 

sin  increases  with  each  forward  step  of  civilization,  that 
7:1-5.  is,  with   the   development  of    the  various   arts ;  (4)  the 

terrible  growth  of  sin,  until  it  is  so  great  that  the  race 
9:20-27.  itself  (except  a  single  family)  must  perish;  (5)  the  sin  of 

11:1-9.  Noah  in  introducing  vine-culture;  (6)  the  rebellion  of 

men   against  the  Deity,  followed    by   the  confusion   of 

tongues  and  the  dispersion. 

3.  Take    up,    likewise,    the    writer's    conception    of 
Gen.  26:6-13.  deliverance  from  sin,  as  illustrated  (1)  in  the  stories  of  the 

32:24—29. 

45:9-11.  heroes,    Abraham,    Isaac,    Jacob,    Joseph,   and    Moses; 

especially  their  deliverance  from  evil  situations  conse- 
quent upon  sin,  e.  g.,  Isaac's  equivocation  in  calling 
Rebekah  his  sister,  and  Abimelech's  discovery  of  the 
deception ;  Jehovah  blesses  Jacob  on  his  way  to  meet 
Esau  whom  he  has  defrauded ;  Joseph  is  freed  from 
prison  and  made  governor  of  Egypt  and  so  enabled  to 
14:11-14.  help  his  treacherous  brethren  ;  (2)  in  the  stories  of  the 

nation's  frequent  deliverances,  in  spite  of  sin,  from  hos- 
tile foes,  and  after  disgraceful  acts  involving  rebellion 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  89 

and   backsliding ;  e.  g.,  the   deliverance  from  Pharaoh's 

pursuing  army  notwithstanding  the  murmuring  and  lack 

of  confidence  of  the  Israelites;  the  defeat  at  Gibeon  of  Josh.  10:1-27;  n: 

it  4-9. 
the    five    kings    allied    against  Israel ;    the  victory  over 

another  body  of    allies   at   the  waters  of    Merom.     (3)   Gen.  3:1^4;  4:9- 
Note,  likewise,  (a)  the  fundamental   place  occupied  by      20-33. 
the  idea  of  Jehovah's  attitude  toward  sin  and  his  readi- 
ness   to    bring   deliverance   (cf.    the   name   of  Joshua  = 
Jesus  =  Jehovah  delivers)  ;  (p)  the  prophet's  explanation    Gen.  3:16-19. 
of  all  labor  and  toil,  of  all  misery  and  suffering;  (V)  the   josh.  chap.  7; 

.•1  •  1        ,       •  «•    1       •  j  ,-,,  ow  Exod.g:27. 

strictly  national  coloring  of  the  idea  which  always  appears, 

and  the  consequent  uniqueness  of  Israel's  position  among 

the  nations;  (d)  the  certainty  of  the  disastrous  conse-   Gen.  29:26, 31. 

quences  of  sin  in  the  case  of  good  as  well  as  bad  men ; 

e.g.,  Jacob's  treachery  repaid  by  that  of  Laban;  Pharaoh's 

scheme  of  destroying   Israel's  children  avenged  by  the   Exod.   1:22;  n: 

killing  of  the  first-born  of  Egypt. 

4.  Take  up  for  examination  those  instances  of  deliver- 
ance suggested  by  J,  which  perhaps  point  forward  to  the 
Messianic  hope  and  prepare  the  way  for  its  realization, 
and  include  at  all  events,  (1)  the  promise  that  the  seed  of   Gen.  3:15. 
the   woman    shall   wage    continual   warfare   with    sin   as 
represented    by   the    serpent;    (2)    Isaac's   blessing    of  27:29a. 
Jacob,    which    contemplates    a    future    pre-eminence    of 
Israel  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  (3)  the  outlook  49:10. 
for  Judah  which  finds  expression  in  Jacob's  blessing  of 
his  sons;  (4)  the   lofty  position   predicted  for  Israel  in  Numb. 24:17. 
one  of  the  oracles  of  Balaam. 

§  88.  Constructive  Study. —  Upon  the  basis  of  §  87  prepare  a  state- 
ment which  will  connect  J's  teaching  concerning  sin  and  deliverance  with 
the  needs  of  the  times  of  800  to  850  B.  C,  remembering  that  never 
before  in  Israel's  history  had  the  sinful  character  of  the  nation  been 
more  strongly  pronounced,  and  also  that,  if  ever  in  the  nation's  history 
deliverance  was  needed,  this  was  such  a  time.  In  this  statement 
include  (1)  a  definition  of  sin  as  it  seems  to  have  been  understood  in 
these  days;  (2)  a  catalogue  of  acts  which  are  regarded  as  sinful ;  (3) 
a  definition,  also,  of  the  word  "deliverance,"  with  reasons  for  using 
this  term  rather  than  the  more  technical  word  "salvation  ;"  (4)  specific 
instances  of  national  deliverance  between  800  and  900  B.  C,  with 
specific  instances,  likewise,  of  what  might  be  called  the  very  opposite 
of  deliverance. 


90  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

§  89.  The  Ethical  Standards  of  J  are  closely  related  to 
the  writer's  doctrine  of  sin  (§  87);  but  some  phases  of  the 
subject  deserve,  perhaps,  independent  study. 

1.  Consider  (1)  the  frankness  with  which  J  represents 
Gen.  i2:ioff.  the  shortcomings  of  the  patriarchs;  e.  g.,  (a)  the  decep- 
26:6-14.  tion  practiced  by  Abraham  ;  {b)  the  similar  deception 
27:19  f.;    30:34-  practiced  by  Isaac;  (c)  the  crookedness  of  Jacob's  policy; 

38a  ;    41  f. ;     16 : 

4ff.  id)    the    polygamy    of   Abraham    and    Jacob;    (2)   the 

25:1-6;  29:316=.;     ....  .  .  .  ,      ,  . 

30:40=.  simplicity,  and,  in  fact,  seeming  unconcern,  with  which 

certain  immoral  transactions  are  described  ;  e.  g.,  (a)  the 

19:30-38.  incest  of  Lot  with  his  own  daughters;  (o)  the  immoral 

38:1-36.  conduct  of  Judah ;  (c)  the  treacherous  and  cruel  treat- 

34:19,26,296-31.     ment  of  the  men  of  Shechem  by  the  sons  of  Jacob;  (d) 

g:2of.  the  drunkenness  of  Noah;  (3)  the  foundation  on  which 

the  distinction  between  right  and  wrong  is  based;  (a)  is 

it  law,  or  the  personal  relation  to  Jehovah  ?  (b)  in  what 

respect  and  why  are  Abraham  and  Noah,  for  example, 

standards,  by  comparison  with  whom  others  are  tested  ? 

(c)  what  other  great  types  of  moral    rectitude    are    put 

forward  ?  (d)  in  what  sense  were  Adam  and  Eve,  Pharaoh 

and  Esau  types  of  an  opposite  character  ?  (e)  what,  after 

all,  was  the  complete  duty  of  man  according  to  J  ? 

2.  Study  the  relation  of  the  foregoing  facts  to  J's 
times:  (1)  How  far  is  the  representation  here  given  a 
reflection  of  the  higher  standards  of  the  period  ?  In 
how  far  does  J  hold  up  ideals  which  have  thus  far  never 
been  realized  ?  (2)  What,  briefly,  were  the  national 
shortcomings  between  800  and  900  B.  C?  What  were, 
perhaps,  the  most  striking  individual  vices  of  this  period  ? 
(5)  How  definite  in  J  is  Elijah's  conception  of  righteous- 
ness on  the  part  of  rulers  ?  (4)  To  what  extent  does  J 
really  adopt  the  ethical  code  of  .the  Decalogue  ?  (5) 
Does  the  lex  talionis,  or  law  of  revenge,  appear  to  have 
prevailed  in  these  times  ?  (6)  State  in  a  few  words  J's 
ethical  message  to  his  times. 

§  90.  Attitude  toward  Worship. — 
Gen.  8:20;  12:8;  1.  Prepare  a  statement  which  will  present  J's  attitude 

4:3i;Exod.  34:    toward  the  prevailing  method  of  worship,  including  (1) 

i9f.,  26. 

35:14.  the  use  of  altars;  (2)  the  conception  of  the  offering,  a 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  9I 

present  of   fruit  or  from  the  flock:  (3)   its  cleanness  or  Gen.  8:20;  Exod. 

r  '    VJ/  34:25,  266;  Gen. 

uncleanness;  (4)   the   use   of    fire;    (5)   the   necessity  of      8:20;  Exod.  10: 

'    v^7  '     yD/  J  25;    Gen.    12:8; 

having  a  priest;  (6)  the  use  of  the  oracle;  (7)  reference      Exod.  19:22; 32: 
o       r  »   \  /  >   \i  /  =25-29;  Gen. 24: 

to  sacred  trees,  or  wells,  or  stones;  (8)  the  significance      12-14;  35:32!; 

'    v    '  °  Josh.  16:1;  17: 

of  the  large  number  of  stones  which  are  associated  with      m.  17;  Gen.  12: 

°  6  ff.;  13:18;  16: 

sanctuaries;  (o)  the  emphasis  placed   on   the   Passover;      13 f-;  31:33;  35: 

X7/  r  r  '       14.  20;  Josh.  4: 

(10)  the  large  ritualistic  element  in  the  T  edition  of  the      3-8;  Exod. 12:3- 

v       '  °  J  16;   chap.  34. 

Book  of  the  Covenant. 

2.  Compare  this  with  the  observance  of  the  cult  in 
J's  times,  and  determine  (1)  whether  J  is  in  any  sense 
under  Canaanitish  or  Baalistic  influence;  does  he  possess 
Elijah's  point  of  view?  (2)  Is  he  hostile  to  the  high- 
places?  (3)  What  ideals,  if  any,  does  he  present  for 
adoption  ?  (4)  Formulate  his  message  on  this  subject 
in  a  proposition  of  fifty  words. 

§91.  The  Outside  World  and  Israel  as  a  Nation. — 
What  are  J's  representations  on  this  subject  ? 

1.  Consider  the  influence  on  Israel's  own  thought 
concerning  herself  of  (1)  the  study  of  the   deliverance  Exod.  7:16.  17a, 

,  18,    21a;    8:1-4, 

from  Egypt,  an  event  marking  Israel  s  birth  as  a  nation;      8-150,  20-9:7; 
(2)  the  idea  which  is  now  entertained  of  Israel's  special   Gen.  12:3;  18:18; 

28:14 ;  49:10. 

mission  to  the  world;  (3)  the  assurance  given,  doubtless   27:29a. 
many  times,  that   she  is  to  occupy  a  place  of  political 
supremacy. 

2.  Observe,  further,  that,  in  general,  J's  point  of  view 
of  Israel's  world-relations  is  large  and  broad,  as  is  shown 

(1)  by  the  world-stories  which  were  collected  and   made   Gen.  chaps,  i-n. 

an    introduction    to    Israel's    history;    (2)   by    the    very   chap. 34 549:5-7. 

neighborly  relations  which  the  patriarchs  are  represented 

as   sustaining   to   those   about  them;  (t.)  by  the  attitude   3:i6ff.;  Numb. 

0  '  VJ/     J  22:7;  24:1;  25: 

toward  the  religious  institutions  of  other  nations  which      'ff-;  Josh.  5: 

9(?)- 

from  time  to  time  appears. 

x.   Note  (1)  that,  while  no  allusion  has  yet  been  made   Exod.  19:5,  6; 

*»  ■  \   /  '  J  Numb.  14:21. 

which  points  to  the  actual  separation  of  Israel  from  the 
world  at  large,  other  nations  are  represented  as  serving 
Israel,  and  likewise  Israel's  god  Jehovah  {cf.  the  later 
specific    statements   of    a   different  character);    (2)    that   Gen.  25:23: 19:30- 

/  »      \    /  38  ;    25  :  1-6 ;   9 : 

Israel's   superiority  is   clearly  indicated  in  J's  stories  of      25;  16:12. 

the  origin  of  (a)  Moab  and  Amnion,  (b)  Esau,  (c)  Canaan, 

(d)  various  Arab  tribes;  (3)  that  apparently  no  difficulty   Gen.    41:45a; 


92  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

is   seen   in  the  fact  that  Joseph   marries   an    Egyptian; 

Gen.  12:3;  18:18;   Moses,  a  Midianite;    (4)  that  definite  promises  of  land 

28*14 
18:19.  and  national  life  are  made  to  the  patriarchs  from  time  to 

time,  while  the  necessity  is  clearly  seen  of  training  the 

nation  for  its  work;  (5)  the  Messianic  import   involved 

in  these  assurances. 

§  92.  Constructive  Study. —  In  view  of  the  extreme  importance  which 
must  have  attached  to  J's  conceptions  on  this  question  of  Israel's 
relation  to  the  nations,  prepare  a  statement,  based  on  §  91,  which  will 
show  (1)  the  importance  of  a  definite  policy  at  this  particular  time  in 
Israel's  history;  (2)  what  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  the  essence  of 
J's  position  on  this  question.  It  is  of  special  interest  to  inquire  (a) 
whether  the  idea  of  isolation  has  yet  prevailed  to  any  extent;  (<£)  the 
wisdom  of  the  policy,  from  a  pedagogical  point  of  view,  of  bringing 
Israel  into  touch  with  the  other  nations;  (c)  the  falsity  of  the  view 
which  treats  Israel  even  from  Abraham's  times  as  "cut  off"  from  the 
world;  (//)  the  influence  of  the  prophets  in  convincing  Israel  of  her 
world-mission. 

§  93.  The  Relation  Sustained  to  J  by  Later  Prophets 

and  by  J  to  later  prophets  is  of  importance  in  determin- 
ing with  exactitude  J's  own  position.     Consider  — 

1.  The  ideas  of  J  already  mentioned,  which  were 
taken  up  and  developed  by  later  prophecy,  e.  g.,  (1)  the 
conception  of  Jehovah  (§  86)  as  faithful,  merciful,  just, 
hating  sin,  all-powerful,  and  ever-present  among  his 
people,  all  of  which  attributes  are  dwelt  upon  by  Amos, 
Hosea,  and  Isaiah;  (2)  the  conception  of  sin  (§  88)  as 
essentially  a  product  of  the  will  of  man,  and  the  large 
place  given  to  pointing  out  the  evil  effects  of  sin;  is  not 
this  characteristic  of  all  genuine  prophecy  ?  (3)  the  germ 
of  the  Messianic  hope  (§  87,4)  which  became  later  so  large 
an  element  in  prophetic  thought;  and  (4)  the  conception 
of  Israel's  mission  to  the  world  in  general  (§  91,  1). 

2.  Specific  allusions  to  the  traditions  and  utterances 

of  J  found  in  the  prophecies  of  Amos  and  Hosea,  e.  g., 

Am.  2:10;  9:7;   (1)  citations  of  the  Exodus  and  wilderness  wanderings  as 
Hos.  12:9;  13:4.    v    '  " 

proofs  of  the  wonderful  power  and  goodness  of  Jehovah; 

Am.  5:25;  Hos.  9:   (2)   other    references   to   incidents  and  customs   of  the 

Am.' 4:11;  Hos.   wilderness  period;  (3)  references  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
n:8. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  93 

cities  of  the  plain;  (4)  the  attitude  of  J  toward  the  ancient  Am. 3:14; 4: 4; 5: 

r  '    v^'  J  sf. ;  8:14;   Hos. 

sanctuaries,  in  contrast  with  that  of  Amos  and  Hosea  as      4:15:  6:8f.;  10: 

15;  12:4,  XI. 

seen  in  their  allusions  to  Bethel,  Beersheba,  Shechem, 
Gilead;  (5)  the  two  conflicting  estimates  of  Jacob  repre-  Hos.,  chap.  12. 
sented  in  Hos.,  chap.  12,  and  their  relation  to  J's  atti- 
tude toward  the  patriarch;  (6)  the  thought  that  Jehovah  Am.  3:2;  cf.  Gen. 
had  known  Israel  as  expressed  by  Amos,  and  the  similar 
representation  in  J  that  Jehovah  had  known  Abraham  for 
a  special  purpose;  (7)  the  conception  that  Israel's  attitude   Hos.  4:6, 10;  9:1; 

.  ,~j         c/.  Numb.  11:20. 

toward  Jehovah  constituted  a  rejection  of  him  as  their  God, 
so  prominent  in  Amos  and  Hosea,  is  already  present  in  J. 

On  the  teachings  of  J  see  especially:  Carpenter  and  Har- 
ford-Battersby,  The  Hexaieuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  98-104;  Addis,  The 
Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  lii-liv;  Kent,  The  Begin- 
nings of  Hebrew  History  (1904),  pp.  31-34;  Driver,  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (6th  ed.),  pp.  1 19  f.;  McFADYEN, 
The  Messages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  Historians,  pp.  76-83  ; 
Gunkel,  The  Legends  of  Genesis  (1901);  Briggs,  Higher  Criticism 
of  the  Hexateuch,  pp.  146-54;  W.  R.  Harper,  articles  in  Hebraica 
for  1888-91;  Idem,  Amos  and  Hosea  (1905),  pp.  lxix-lxxix  ;  H.  P. 
Smith,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  210  f.;  Duff,  Old  Testament 
Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  279-318. 

HOLZINGER,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp.  III-13,  130-38; 
Idem,  Genesis  erkldrt  ("  Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testa- 
ment "),  pp.  xvi,  xvii ;  BAUDISSIN,  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des 
Alten  Testamentes,  §30;  Baentsch,  Exodus- Leviticus- Numeri 
("Hand-Kommentar  zum  Alten  Testament"),  pp.  xvi-xx. 

§  94.  Understanding  that  the  Prophetic  Narrative  E 
had  its  origin  in  Northern  Israel  between  800  and  750 
B.  C,  we  are  to  ask  ourselves  the  same  question  that  was 
suggested  concerning  J  (§85):  What  was  his  message? 
It  will  be  noted,  at  the  very  outset,  that,  since  J  and  E 
are  both  prophets  or  prophetic  schools,  and  live  about  the 
same  time,  great  similarity  will  be  expected  in  their 
teachings.  In  the  study  of  E  emphasis  may  be  placed 
on  points  in  which  he  differs  from  J.  The  fact  that  one 
wrote  primarily  for  Southern  Israel,  the  other  for  North- 
ern Israel,  will  explain  many  of  the  points  in  respect  to 
which  differences  are  found.  The  following  passages 
may  be  regarded  as  representative  of  E. 

1.  Abraham's  deception  of  Abimelech  with  reference  Gen.  20:1-17. 
to  Sarah. 

2.  The  expulsion  of  Hagar  and  her  son  from  Abra-   21:8-21. 
ham's  family. 


94  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

22:1-19.  3.  The  proposed  sacrifice  of  Isaac. 

31:19-24,26,28-30  4.  The  flight  of  Jacob  from  Laban,  with  the  theft  of 

32-42,51—32:1. 

Laban  s  gods. 

35:1-5,66-8.  5.  Jacob's  journey  to  Bethel  where  he  builds  an  altar. 

40:1—41:40.  6.  Joseph's  experiences  in  prison  and  his  interpreta- 

tion of  Pharaoh's  dream. 

4*iKKB~sw  7>  JosePh's  treatment  of  his  brethren  in  Egypt. 

Exod.  2:1-10.  8.  The  birth  of  Moses  and  his  adoption  by  Pharaoh's 

daughter. 

17:8-16.  9.  Israel's  victory  over  Amalek. 

18:12-27.  10.  Jethro's  advice  to  Moses  concerning  the  adminis- 

tration of  justice. 

Numb.  11:16,246-        11.  The  story  of  the  seventy  elders. 

Deut.  33:1-25.  12.  The  blessing  of  Moses. 

§  95.  E's  Distinctive  Work  may  be  grouped  very  sum- 
marily along  the  lines  already  indicated  for  J.  These 
include  — 

1.  A  strongly  marked  prophetic  character,  which  is 
Gen  20:7.  seen  in  (x)  the  representation  of  Abraham  as  a  prophet; 
Deut. 34: 10-12.       (2)  the  ascribing  of  Elohim's  spirit  to  Joseph;  (3)  the 

lifting   of    Moses    to    the   highest    possible    position   in 
Exod.    15:20;   prophecy;  (4)  the  representation  of  Miriam  as  a  prophet- 
ess, and  of  Balaam  as  a  prophet,  although  a  non-Israelite; 
Numb.  11:16,246-  (5)  the  continuation  of  the  divine  direction  through  the 
josh.  1:1.  seventy  elders;  (6)  the  characterization  of  Joshua  as  the 

Gen.  15:5:46:3.      minister  of  Moses  and  as  the  servant  of  Jehovah;  (7)^the 
presentation  (although   rare)  of  predictions  concerning 
Israel's  greatness,   including   forecasts  of  the  future  by 
27:39!. ;  48:20.       Isaac  and  Jacob;    and,  still  further,  (8)  the  hero-stories 
20:1-17;  22:1-13;   which  are  intended  to  serve  as  ideals  for  the  Israel  of 

31 :4-l6 ;  etc. 

the  writer's  own  day,  and,  as  such,  to  be  regarded  as  his 
anticipations,  in    fact   his  predictions,  of  Israel's  future 
josh., chap. 24.       glory;  (9)  the  general  representation  of  theocratic  guid- 
ance and  control  which  prevails. 

2.  A  conception  of  God  characterized  by  several  strik- 
ing facts;  viz.:  (1)  the  recognition  of  three  different 
stages  of  growth,  including  (a)  the  situation  of  Israel's 
early  ancestors,  when  polytheism  and  idolatry  were  in 

josh. 24:2.  vogue;  (6)  the  religion  of  Abraham,  and  especially  that 

of  Jacob,  who  has  seen  the  angels  of  Elohim  and  imme- 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  95 

diately  introduces  a  reformation  in  his  clientage  by  bury- 
ing the  strange  gods  under  the  oak  at  Shechem;  (c)  this  Gen.  35:2-4. 
is  followed  by  the  later  revelation  of  Jehovah ;  (2)  the  use  Exod.  3:15. 
of  "Elohim"  as  the  word  for  the  Deity,  until  "Jehovah"  Gen.  13:17-19:18: 

■*  12;  Exod.  20:1, 

is  revealed,  and  its  continuation  afterward  side  by  side      19ft.:  Gen.  ax: 

I7;28:i2;3i:n  ; 

with  "Jehovah"  and  in  certain  special  phrases;  (3)  the      Exod. 14:19. 
frequent  allusion  to  angels;  (4)  the  frequent  use  of  the  Gen.  20:3,  6;  28: 

...  12;    31 :  10,    24; 

dream  as  a  means  of  revelation,  especially  in  the  story      42:9. 

of  Joseph;    (5)  the  very  significant  use  of  the  plural  of  Gen. 20:13;  31:53. 

the  verb  when  employed  as  a  predicate  to  the  word  for 

God — Elohim;  (6)  the  fact  that  the  representations  of 

the  Deity  are  generally  less  crude   than  those  of  J,  and 

partake   far  less  of  the  anthropomorphic  character;  (7)   Gen. 31:42,53:28: 

r  r  r  22;  Exod.  33:9; 

the  use  of  the  phrase  "fear  of  Isaac;"  the  sacred  stone;      josh. 24:27. 
the  pillar  at  the  door  of  the  tent  speaking;  the  stone  of 
witness;    (8)   the    peculiar    representation   of-  the  Deity   Gen. 22:1. 
as    "trying"    his    people;    (9)    the   custom    of    treating  josh.  6:20;  Exod. 
important  events  as  the  result  of  the  direct  action  of  the 
Deity,  and  not  as  having  come  about  through  the  inter- 
position of  human  effort;  (10)  the   use  by  the  Deity  of   Gen. 50:29;  45:58. 
men   to   accomplish   his    plans,   although   they   may   be 
ignorant  of  them  or  hostile  to  them. 

3.   Other   characteristic   teachings    may,    perhaps,    be 
grouped  together,  the  more  important  being  (1)  a  desire   c/. Gen., chaps.  16 
to  shield  the   reputation  of  the   patriarchs  by  relieving 
them  of  the  responsibility  in  certain  transactions,  thus 
showing  a  keener  ethical  sense   than   J   exhibited;  (2)  a   Gen.28:22;  8:20a; 

°  j  1   \  >  13:18;  Josh.  9: 

definite  recognition  of  the  patriarchal  cultus,  including      27;  Exod  33:7- 
the  tent  of  meeting  (which  was  placed  under  the  charge      16-30. 
of  Joshua,  rather  than  Aaron  and  his  sons),  altars,  pillars, 
but  no  priests;  (3)  a  lack  of  interest  in  the  outside  world,   ^n.  20:1-17;  21: 
and  in  the  connection  of  Israel's  history  with  that  world, 
but  an  attitude  toward  neighboring  nations  altogether 
friendly;    (4)  points  of  contact  with  Amos  and  Hosea; 
cf.,  e.  g.,  (a)  the  widely  differing  conceptions  of  Israel's 
future  in   E   and  Amos;  (6)  the  contrast   between   the  Hos.4:i3f.;8:nf. 
attitude  of  E  and  that  of  the  prophets  toward  the  high- 
places  and  ancient  sanctuaries  of  Canaan;    (c)  Hosea's   HNumb25°3a  c ' 
reference   to   the   sin    of    Israel    in   joining   themselves 
unto  Baal-peor;  (</)  Amos's  allusion  to  the  great  stature  ANumb.  13:33. c/" 


96  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

of  the  Amorites;  (<?)  the  high  ethical  standards  of  Hosea 
and  Amos  as  related   to  the  corresponding  standards  of 
A917-8Hos3r8ff3-    ^'  (/)  tne  attitude  of  E  toward  the  surrounding  nations, 
8:8-  and  that  of  Amos  and  Hosea  toward  them. 

§  96.  Constructive  Study. — Formulate,  on  the  basis  of  §  95,  the  special 
points  to  be  noted  in  E's  message  to  his  times,  including  (1)  that  which 
is  new  in  E  as  compared  with  J;  (2)  that  which  is  different  in  E  as 
compared  with  J;  (3)  that  which  is  lacking  in  E  as  compared  with  J. 
On  the  teachings  of  E  see:  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hex- 
ateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1 10-20 ;  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament 
(6th  ed.),  pp.  118  f.;  Addis,  The  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  Vol.  I,  pp.  liv.lv ;  Kent, 
The  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History,  pp.  34  f.;  McFadyen,  The  Messages  of  the  Pro- 
phetic and  Priestly  Historians,  pp.  76-83;  Briggs,  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch, 
pp.  146-54;  W.  R.  Harper,  articles  in  Hebraica  for  1888-91 ;  Idem,  Amos  and 
Hosea,  pp.  Ixxix-lxxxiv ;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  219  f.;  Duff,  Old 
Testament  Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  457-89. 

Holzinger,  Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch,  pp.  197-21 2,  Idem,  Genesis  erkldrt 
("Kurzer  Hand-Commentar  zum  Alten  Testament")  pp.  xviii,  xix ;  Baudissin, 
Einleitung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes,  §  30 ;  Baentsch,  Exodus- Leviticus- 
Numeri  ("  Hand-Kommentar  zum  Alten  Testament  "),  pp.  xxviii-xxxii. 

§  97.  The  Early  Laws  of  the  Israelitish  nation5  found 
in  three  main  groups — viz.,  the  Decalogue,  the  larger 
and  smaller  books  of  the  Covenant  —  stand  related  to 
the  prophecy  of  this  period  in  three  ways:  (1)  they  are 
codified  in  this  period — a  step  which  involved  general 
and,  indeed,  official  acceptance;  (2)  they  are  appropriated 
and  made  a  part  of  the  prophetic  history  of  JE  —  a  step 
which  signifies  their  indorsement  by  these  prophets;  (3) 
they  serve  as  the  legal  basis  for  the  prophetic  utterance 
until  the  year  621  B.  C.  They  may  rightly  be  regarded 
as  representing  prophetic  thought.  Accordingly,  the 
following  study  is  suggested  with  a  view  to  determining 
the  character  of  the  prophetic  message  which  was  con- 
veyed through  these  codes  to  the  people  of  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  B.  C. 

1.  An  examination  of  the  principal  passages  relating 

Exod.  ao:2ff.,  7;   to    God,   and   a  formulation   of  the  results;  viz.,  (a)  the 
23:17, 25ft.;  34:  . 

14,17,23*-  idea  of  Jehovah's  jealousy  —  what  is  meant  by  this  term  ? 

(b)  the  prohibition  of  improper  use  of  the  divine  name  — 
what  is  involved  here  ?  (c)  the  thought  of  God  as  bestow- 
ing the  blessings  of  crops  and  herds;  (d)  the  thought  of 
God  as  Israel's  God. 

*Cf.  Priestly  Element  in  the  Old  Testament  (3d  ed.,  1905),  §§20,  169;  pp.24  ff., 
115  f- 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    THE    EARLY    HISTORIES  g1/ 

2.  Similar  treatment  of  passages  in  which  allusion  is  2o:4ff  7,8^,23; 

r  °  22:18-20,28 ;  23 : 

made  to  actions  or  conduct  which  may  be  termed  trans-      I3,„24.  32;  34: 

J  I2ff. 

gressions  against  God,  e.  g.,  idolatry,  polytheism,  improper 
use  of  the  divine  name,  sorcery,  blasphemy,  uncleanness. 

-*.  Similar  treatment  of  passages  in  which  allusion  is  20:8ft., 24-26;  22: 

u  r  o  29-31 :  23:14-17 

made  to  worship,  dealing,  e.  g.,  with  the  sabbath,  the      18 f.  ,-34:18-26. 
altar,  offerings  of  first-fruits,  sacrifices,  clean  and  unclean, 
the  feasts. 

4.  A  classification  of  the  laws  involving  the  relation   (<»)  Exod.  20:13; 

0  21  :  12-14,   i8f., 

of  man  to  man  in  various  activities  of  life,  together  with      22-25, 28-32 :  (6) 

0  20:15:21 :i6 ;22: 

a  statement  of  the  fundamental  principles  which  seem  to      J-4,  7*.,  10:13; 

(c)     21:2-11,    20, 

underlie  these  enactments,  e.  g.,  those  relating  to  (a)  per-      26 f.;  (<*)  20:12; 

21  :i5,  17;  (e)  20: 

sonal  injuries  and  loss  of  life;  (b)  theft  and  violation  of      h;    21:33-36: 

22:5,  6,  9,  i6f.; 

trust;  (c)   the  rights   of  slaves;  (d)   filial   reverence;    (e)      (/)  22:141,25- 

v  '      27;  (g)  20:16; 
damage  to  property;  (/)  loans;  (g)  testimony;  (//)  the      23:1-3;  (h)  22: 

21-24:23:41,9- 

exercise  of  kindness;  (/')  bribery;  (/)  covetousness.  ";  (»')  23:6-8; 

^     v  (7)20:17. 

5.  A  study  of  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah,  with 

a  view  to  ascertaining,  in  the  case  of  each  prophet,  the 
extent  to  which  these  codes,  or  their  individual  enact- 
ments, are  recognized  by  them  and  indorsed. 

§  98.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Early  Judean  Narratives  in  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings. — Take  up  these  narratives  (see  §  58),  for  consider- 
ation in  the  same  way  as  the  foregoing  materials,  and  endeavor  to 
formulate  (1)  the  writer's  point  of  view  as  seen  in  his  choice  of 
materials  and  in  his  version  of  the  story;  (2)  the  purpose  of  the  writer 
as  revealed  in  his  presentation  of  his  materials;  (3)  the  prophetic  ele- 
ment in  his  narrative;  (4)  the  teachings  on  the  great  themes  of 
prophecy,  viz.,  God,  sin,  Israel's  future,  righteousness,  and  deliverance; 
(5)  the  points  of  agreement  and  difference  in  comparison  with  the 
method  and  ideas  of  the  J  narrative  in  the  Hexateuch.  What  con- 
ception of  Israel's  history  prevails  in  these  narratives  ?  What  national 
ideals  are  here  presented  ? 

§  99.  Constructive  Study  on  the  Early  Ephraimitish  Narratives  of 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings. —  In  the  same  general  way,  consider  these 
narratives  (see  §  58,  3-6)  and  compare  them  with  the  foregoing  Judean 
material  on  the  various  points  at  issue,  noting  (a)  the  points  of  agree- 
ment and  (b)  those  of  variation  ;  and  formulate  the  teaching  of  these 
writers  with  reference  to  the  times  and  circumstances  which  they  were 
striving  to  influence.  How  far  is  the  teaching  determined  and  influ- 
enced by  the  environment  amid  which  it  found  utterance  ?  What  out- 
look for  Israel  is  here  presented  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS. 

§  ioo.  The  Personal  Life  of  Amos. —  Since  many  points 
of  peculiar  interest  in  the  work  of  Amos  turn  upon  his 
personal  life,  and  especially  on  the  location  of  his  home, 
it  is  important  to  consider  — 

i.  The  evidence  found  for  supposing  that  he  lived  in 

I:1.  Judah  :    (a)  the  statement  of  the  superscription  that  his 

home  was  in  Tekoa,  which  is  known  to  have  been  located 
about  ten   miles  south  of   Jerusalem  and  five  south  of 

7:I2.  Bethlehem;  (t>)  the  command  of  Amaziah  to  flee  to  Judah, 

which  implies  that  Judah  was  the  home  of  Amos;  (c)  the 
unsympathetic  attitude  of  Amos  toward  Israel,  which  is 
more  natural  in  an  outsider  than  in  a  native  citizen.  In 
contrast  with  which  may  be  noted  — 

2.  The  suggestions  offered  in  opposition  to  the  loca- 
tion of  his  home  in  Judah,  for  example,  (a)  his  entire 
occupation  with  Northern  Israel;  (i>)  the  too  great  eleva- 
tion of  Tekoa  for  sycamore  culture;  (<*)  his  lack  of 
interest  in  Judah;  (d)  the  suggestion  that  his  home  was  in 
Northern  Israel,  and  that  he  went  to  Judah  only  after  being 
expelled  from  Bethel.     In  this  same  connection  — 

3.  It  is  worth  while  to  consider  the'location  of  Tekoa, 
and  (a)  the  likelihood  of  its  producing  a  character  like 
that  of  Amos;  {b)  its  contiguity  to   the  lines  of  travel 

CI. 2  Chron.  n:6,  taken  by  the  Arab  caravans;  likewise  (c)  its  proximity  to 
Jerusalem,  and  (d)  its  relation  to  the  wilderness,  and  the 
significance  of  a  matter  like  this  in  the  creation  of 
character. 

§  1 01!  The  Date  and  Circumstances  of  Amos's  Career. — 

These  are  of  vital  concern  in  any  effort  to  understand 

his    prophetic   work.       Note    the    almost    unanimously 

accepted  date  of  765-750  B.  C,  and  consider  the  support 

1:1.  found  for  this  view  (a)  in  the  superscription;  (6)  in  the 

7:10,11,17.  statements  of  a  personal  character  contained  in  chap.  7, 

6:i4.  as  in  harmony  with   the  times  of  Jeroboam   II.;  (c)  in 

98 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS  99 

the  statement  of  the  boundaries  of  Israel  which  agree  a  Kings  14:25. 
with  its  extent  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.;  (d)  the  con- 
fidence of  the  people  politically  in  view  of  the  pre- 
occupation of  the  kings  of  Assyria  (Shalmanezer,  783- 
773  B.  C,  and  Ashurdan,  772-755  B.  C),  whose  time 
was  taken  chiefly  with  conspiracy  at  home  and  wars 
in  other  parts  of  the  empire;  likewise  (e)  the  general 
religious  situation,  one  marked  by  keen  interest  in  the 
religious  cultus  of  the  times  because  the  people  in  this  3:14;  4:4,5;  5:21- 
time  of  political  prosperity  seek  to  acknowledge  their 
appreciation  of  the  divine  favor  accorded  them,  as  well 
as  because  of  anxiety  aroused  by  earthquake  and  pesti- 
lence.    It  is  to  be  noticed  (/)  that  the  social  situation  is  2:6_8;  3:I0>  "• 

vy  '  15.  4:i'  5:7,io- 

one  of  wealth   and   luxury,  debauchery  and  oppression,      |3;  6:1,3-6; 
fraud  and  robbery.     It  may  not  be  uninteresting  (g)  to   4:10;  8:9;  1:1. 
observe  that  the  land  had  within  recent  years  been  visited 
by  pestilence  as  well  as  by  a  solar  eclipse  (about  763 
B.  C.)  and  by  an  earthquake. 

§102.  The  Occupation  of  Amos. —  Closely  associated 
with  the  question  of  Amos's  home  and  time  of  work  is 
that  of  his  occupation.  Here  it  is  necessary  to  study  (a)  7:14;  cf.  1:1. 
the  prophet's  own  statement,  with  its  implications.  Does 
he  disdain  to  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  regular  prophets 
of  the  times?  If  so,  why?  Is  his  work  different  in 
purpose  or  in  spirit?  Is  he  a  closer  observer  than  those 
who  have  preceded  him  ?  Does  he  exhibit  evidence  of 
greater  philosophical  insight  ?  Is  he  more  inclined  to 
recognize  general  law  ?  Is  he,  in  fact,  almost  as  truly  a 
sage  as  a  prophet?  (6)  What  was  the  nature  of  his 
occupation  as  a  dresser  of  sycamores,  and  what  was 
implied  in  this?  Was  he  poor,  or  was  he  financially 
independent?  (c)  Was  he  also  a  shepherd?  In  what 
way  is  the  occupation  of  a  shepherd  consistent  with 
that  of  a  dresser  of  sycamores  ?  Was  he  perhaps  a 
wool-gatherer?  Was  this  a  higher  occupation  than  that 
of  a  shepherd  ?  Did  it  involve  journeys  in  which  he 
might  meet  men  from  different  parts  of  the  world  ?  (d) 
Do  we  find  evidence  of  his  rustic  life  in  the  language  of  3:I3'.  3:4  f. ,12; 

°      °  4:1  i-\  5:",i7 

Amos?     May  we  attribute  to  the  loneliness  of  his  occupa-      19,6:12. 
tion  the  lack   in  his  message  of  anything  that  may  be 


100  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

called  tenderness  or  love?     Was  it  in  this  shepherd  life 

that  he  learned  to  observe  facts  and  causes  ? 

§  103.  The  Preparation  and  Call  of  Amos. — This  brings 

us  to  the  question  of  his  call  and  preparation,     (a)  Do 

we  find  in  his  writings  evidence  of  a  lack  of  intellectual 

preparation  and  ability;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  is  he  a 

1:3, 6, 13;  2:1,9-  master  in  the  use  of  the  Hebrew  language?  Has  he  a 
12;  4:6-11.  °     ° 

large  knowledge  of  history  and  society  ?     Does  he  seem 

8:8;  9:7.  to    have    seen    things  with   his   own   eyes?      Is   he  an 

ethnologist  as  well  as  a  historian,  a  geographer  as  well  as 

a  sociologist  ?     Is  his  conception  of  God  and  of  ethical 

philosophy  high  or   low?     Is  he  credited  with  working 

miracles?     {b)  Did  he  really  entertain  contempt  for  the 

2:11,3:7.  prophetic  societies  of  his  times?     If  so,  how  are  we  to 

1:3, 6, 13;  2:1,6,     explain    the    respect    shown    for    prophets?       In    what 

4:5-11; 5:3a,  16,'  respects  did  he  resemble  Elijah?     Did  he  himself  make 
17,27;  6:86,146;  .,  .     .  .  .      .       _     _..  -  ,         .         .. 

7:1-9;  8:if;        use  of  the  technique  of  prophetism  ?     Did  he,  after  all, 

stand  alone  ?    Or  was  he  not  closely  preceded  by  J  and  E, 

and  just  as  closely  followed  by  Hosea  ?    How,  then,  are  we 

to  explain  his  apparent  desire  not  to  be  reckoned  as  one 

7:14-  of  the  prophets  ?     (c)    Aside  from  the  discipline  which 

he  secured  in  the  desert  and  in  the  progress  of  travels 
which  were  undertaken  in  connection  with  his  occupa- 
tion, what  are  the  facts  in  reference  to  the  development 

7:1-7-  of   culture  in  eastern   society?      (d)    Is    it   possible   to 

suppose  that  Amos's  call,  like  those  of  Isaiah  and 
Jeremiah,  came  in  visions,  namely,  those  of  the  fire, 
locusts,  and  plummet  ?  Does  the  fact  that  these  visions 
are  recorded  in  the  seventh  chapter  oppose  this  sugges- 

isa.,chap.  6.  tion  ?     Compare  the  place  of  Isaiah's  call  in  the  narra- 

tive. («?)  Consider  what  may  be  called  the  antecedents 
of  Amos's    thought   as    they  are    found    in    connection 

Amos, 2:11  f.;        with  (1)  the  prophets  whom    he  cites;    (2)   Elijah  and 

Numb.,  chaps. 23,  Elisha;  (3)  the  many  disconnected  fragments  of  pro- 
34'  phetic  utterances  found  in  J  and   E ;    (4)  the    prophet 

Hosea8:i2.  of  Isa.,  chaps.   15,  16;  (5)  the  priestly  literature  which 

had  already  taken  form ;  (6)  the  prophetic  diction  which 

judg.,  chap.  5;  Amos  employs  and  which  implies  long  usage;  (7)  the 
great  poetical  pieces  which  had  come  down  from  ancient 
times,  like  Deborah's  song,  etc. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS  IOI 

§  104.    The   Character  of   Amos. —  Consider   now  the 
character  of  Amos  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  gathered  from 
the  facts  at  our  command,  and  discover  the  evidence,  if 
such  exists,  for  regarding  him  as  (a)  bold  and  courageous;   7:10-17. 
(i)    accurate   in  observation   and  scientific   in   habits  of  3:4-6. 
mind;    (c)   nomadic   in   his   instincts;    (d)    austere   and   6:4-7. 
uncompromising ;    (e)  the   nature   of  his   spirituality   as 
distinguished  from  that  of  Isaiah. 

§  105.  The  Message  of  Amos — This,  after  all,  is  the 
most  important  topic.  Consider  (1)  the  reasons  for  the 
opinion  that  the  message  of  Amos  is  the  most  important 
of  any  conveyed  by  an  Old  Testament  writer,  and  (2) 
the  two  or  three  factors  which  are  disclosed  in  a  general 
analysis  of  this  message,  namely,  (a)  a  profound  convic- 
tion on  certain  subjects  relating  to  God  and  to  human 
life;  {b)  a  knowledge  of  certain  facts  in  national  and 
international  history;  (V)  a  conclusion  which  grows  out 
of  putting  together  the  conviction  and  the  knowledge 
of  the  situation;  (3)  the  importance  of  distinguishing  cf.  §66. 
the  words  actually  uttered  by  Amos  from  the  insertions 
and  additions  that  come  from  the  pen  of  later  prophets, 
in  all  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  entire  book. 

§  106.  The  Popular  Religion. —  It  is  necessary  to 
formulate  the  state  of  feeling  and  opinion  of  the  people 
against  which  the  prophet  arraigns  himself.  This  popu- 
lar opinion,  it  will  be  remembered,  represents  also  that 
of  the  royal  order,  the  priests,  and  a  vast  majority  of  the  4:1;  6:1;  j-.ioi. 
prophets.  Consider  now  the  consensus  of  thought  which 
he  opposes,  the  old  theology  in  comparison  with  which 
his  theology  is  new. 

1.  To  what  extent  was  the  people's  conception  of 
Jehovah  that  of  a  nature-God,  one  among  other  gods, 
the  Deity  of  Palestine? 

2.  To  what  extent  was  their  conception  of  Jehovah   3:2:9:7. 
that  of  a  national  God — a  God,  therefore,  who  would  be 
satisfied  if  Israel  would   limit  herself  to  his  worship;  a 

God  who  could  not  get  along  without  his  nation  Israel 
any  more  than  Israel  could  get  along  without  her  God  ? 
To  what  extent  did  the  people  interpret  the  period  of  5:16-24- 
peace   and    prosperity  which    they  were    enjoying  as  a 


102 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


definite  indication  of  Jehovah's  pleasure  and  satisfac- 
tion ? 

3.  Did  the  people  believe  that  Jehovah  was  virtually 
5:i4-,c/. Mic.3:n.   bound  to  protect  their  political  interests  without  reference 

to  their  moral  conduct?  Must  he  sooner  or  later,  with- 
out reference  to  wright  or  wrong,  identify  himself  with 
his  people  ?  Was  it  a  matter  in  which  he  had  no  option  ? 
In  other  words,  was  his  relation  to  them  one  which  did 
not  involve  an  ethical  basis  ?  Was  their  belief  in  Jehovah 
non-moral,  that  is,  natural  ? 

4.  What,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  people,  was 
Jehovah's  attitude  toward  other  nations  ?  Was  it  to 
fight  against  them  on  behalf  of  his  own  people?  And 
if  they  were  conquered,  did  it  exhibit  on  his  part  a  lack 
of  strength  ?  Did  these  other  nations  have  gods,  and 
was  it  understood  that  the  gods  of  the  other  nations  were 
stronger  than  Israel's  God  when  Israel  was  in  subjection, 
but  that  Israel's  God  was  stronger  than  other  gods  when 
Israel  was  victorious  ?  Had  Israel's  God  shown  his 
power  against  Egypt  and  in  Canaan,  and  more  recently 
against  Syria?  Did  his  relationship  with  these  nations 
cease  when  peace  was  declared?  Did  Israel  belong 
wholly  to  Jehovah  ?     Was  Jehovah  wholly  Israel's  ? 

5.  How,  in  the  opinion  of  the  people,  was  Jehovah's 
favor  to  be  secured  and  his  anger  averted  ?  Was  there 
any  other  method  than  by  following  out  the  ceremonial 
or  cultus,  including  its  festivals  and  sacrifices  ?  Were 
these  indispensable?  Were  they  likewise  wholly  satis- 
factory ?  Could  they  give  him  nothing  else  than  gifts, 
pilgrimages,  and  praises?  Did  Jehovah  ask  nothing 
more  ?  Would  the  increasing  costliness  of  these  require- 
ments develop  injustice  and  inhumanity  ? 

6.  Did    the    people    then    understand    that    moral 
Exod.,  chaps.  20-  requirements  were  ignored  by  Jehovah  in  case  they  were 

faithful  to  the  routine  of  the  ceremonial  ?  Can  it  be 
said  that  they  were  entirely  ignorant  of  moral  duties  in 
view  of  the  existence  of  the  Covenant  Code  and  the 
Decalogue  ?  In  any  case,  did  they  not  seem  to  have  the 
belief  that  morality  was  an  unnecessary  factor  in  religion  ? 
Was  this  not  a  fundamental  conception  in  early  Semitic 
religion  ? 


Judg.  11:24. 


Amos  2:9  f.;  3:1; 
2  Kings  13:25; 
14:25. 


Amos  3:1,  2. 


3:14;  4:4  f-;  5 
21-26;  8:10. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS  103 

7.  Did  the  people  think  about  Assyria  ?  Did  they 
fear  her?  Why  should  they,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  Amos 6:13. 
Jehovah  had  only  recently  shown  his  great  strength  ? 
Could  they  doubt  his  ability,  and,  besides,  were  not 
Egypt  and  Syria  equally  interested  with  Israel  and  Judah 
against  Assyria  ?  Was  it  possible  that  one  nation  could 
overpower  four?  Then,  too,  were  not  the  Assyrians 
occupied  for  the  most  part  with  distant  wars  and  internal 
conspiracies  ?  Had  Assyria  always  been  victorious  ? 
Did  not  fear  of  Assyria  imply  lack  of  faith  in  Jehovah  ? 
Why  should  they  exhibit  this  lack  of  faith  at  a  time  2  Kings  14:25. 
when  he  had  given  such  definite  evidence  of  his  favor? 

§  107.  The  Teachings  of  Amos. — What,  now,  were  the 
convictions  of  Amos  ?  To  what  extent  is  his  thought  in 
direct  antagonism  with  the  current  thought  of  his  times  ? 
To  what  extent  is  it  positive  rather  than  negative,  and 
thus  the  statement  or  restatement  of  eternal  truth  ? 
Were  there  some  popular  beliefs  altogether  wrong  which 
he  did  not  possess  ? 

1.  Consider    Amos's    conception    of    Jehovah,    and   5:14,27. 
remember  in  this  connection  the  full  significance  of  the 
title,  "Jehovah,  God  of  Hosts,"  as  well  as  the  favorite  413. 
expression  of  Amos,  "Lord  Jehovah,"  occurring  perhaps  3:7, «;  4:2,5; 
nineteen    times.       In    what    way    did    Amos    represent 
Jehovah  as  All  Sovereign  and  Omnipotent  ?     In  connec-   *:67XI-  8;8'-  9:2_ 
tion  with  nature?     In  connection  with  history?     What 
has  Jehovah's  relation  been  to  the  Syrians,  the  Philistines, 
Israel  herself?     Does  his  power  reach  to  heaven  and  to   9:2. 
Sheol  ?     But  is  this  power  of  Jehovah  ever  said  to   be 
universal  ?     Did  other  nations  ascribe  to  their  gods  the 
same  power  ?     Does  Jehovah  have  intercourse  with  any 
nation  other  than   Israel  ?     Is  there   evidence,  in  other 
words,  that  Amos  in  his  conception  of  Jehovah  repre- 
sented   pure   monotheism  ?       Does   he    anywhere   deny 
the  existence  of  other  gods  ?     In  any  case,  does    not 
Amos  ascribe  to  Jehovah  unlimited  power?     But,  in  this 
case,  what  relationship  did   these  other  gods  sustain  to 
Jehovah?     If  Jehovah,  for  example,  brought  the  Philis-   97. 
tines  from  Caphtor  and  the  Syrians  from  Kir,  did  he  do 
this  with  or  without  the  permission  of  the  gods  of  those 


104 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


6:14 


7:36,7. 


CI.  Hos.  3:4. 


Amos  3:2. 


9:7. 


5:6. 


5:7-15,24. 


1  Kings  21:18  ff. 


Cj.  Mic.  3:  ix. 


Amos  1:3-8,  13- 
15;  2:1-3. 


nations  ?  Does  not  Amos  clearly  imply  that  other  gods 
are  inferior  and  subject  to  Jehovah  ?  They  only  carry 
out  Jehovah's  will.  Jehovah,  then,  is  a  God  who  has 
defeated  the  gods  of  Egypt,  of  Philistia,  and  of  Canaan. 
He  has  overthrown  the  Phoenician  Baal  and  the  Syrians. 
Can  we  see  the  relationship  of  Amos's  thought  to 
that  of  the  past  ?  Did  Amos  make  use  of  anthropo- 
morphisms ?  In  what  way  are  these  to  be  explained? 
Did  Amos  pass  by  image-worship  ?  Had  objection 
been  made  to  image-worship  ?  What  was  the  restriction 
in  Exod.  34:  17  ?  Had  use  been  made  of  images — for 
example,  the  ephod  and  the  teraphim  ?  Is  there  any 
objection  to  the  interpretation  of  2  : 4  as  representing 
Amos's  views  on  this  point,  or  8:14?  Is  there  any 
evidence  that  Amos  approved  image-worship? 

2.  Is  Jehovah  ever  called  God  of  Israel  in  Amos  ?  Is 
Jehovah  nevertheless  represented  as  sustaining  a  peculiar 
relation  to  Israel  ?  Is  this  relationship  indissoluble,  or 
is  it  clearly  conditioned  ?  (a)  Does  he  give  any  reason 
why  Israel  was  selected  by  Jehovah  rather  than  some 
other  nation  ?  With  unlimited  power  could  he  not  have 
taken  any  nation  ?  (6)  What  special  responsibilities  rest 
upon  Israel  in  view  of  the  selection  that  has  been  made  ? 
(c)  Is  Jehovah  interested  in  the  outside  world  simply  for 
Israel's  sake,  or  is  he  interested  particularly  in  Israel  for 
the  world's  sake  ?  Is  Israel  really  anything  more  to  him 
than  are  the  Cushites?  On  what  condition  alone  is 
Israel's  future  safe  ?  Does  the  prophet  actually  expect 
the  people  to  adopt  his  view  of  the  matter  ? 

3.  To  what  extent  does  the  conception  of  Jehovah  as 
a  God  of  justice  control  the  thought  of  Amos  ?  Had 
this  idea  of  God  been  expressed  by  Elijah  in  the  Naboth 
episode?  (a)  Does  Amos  go  farther  than  did  Elijah? 
Was  he  enabled  to  do  this  because  he  conceived  of 
Jehovah  as  standing  in  close  relation  to  all  nations  ? 
Must  Jehovah  be  impartial,  and  consequently  ethical, 
because  his  power  is  universal  ?  What  is  it  to  be  a  national 
God,  if  not  to  show  favor  to  Israel  ?  Can  he  do  this  and 
be  ethical  ?  Must  a  God  to  be  ethical  be  a  world-God  ? 
(6)  But  if  righteousness  is  an  essential  element  in  Jehovah's 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS  105 

character,  must  he  not  demand  it  of  those  who  are  his 
followers  ?  Can  he  have  one  standard  for  the  world  at 
large  and  a  lower  standard  for  Israel  ?  If  Israel  has 
enjoyed  special  privileges,  must  she  not  be  judged  by  a 
higher  standard  ?  (c)  But  does  Amos  express  any  clear  3:2. 
or  adequate  conception  of  sin  ?  Does  he  show  any  great 
purpose  on  the  part  of  Jehovah  in  the  working  out  of 
this  idea  of  righteousness  ? 

4.  If  Jehovah  has  unlimited  power,  is  he  not  able  to 
control   the   world  ?     Does   this   not   include  Assyria  as  6:14. 
well  as  Egypt?     Will  Jehovah  demand  righteousness  of 

the  world-nations  ?     Why  is  punishment  announced  for  chaps.  1  and  2. 

Syria,   Philistia,    Moab,   and   Amnion?     Was  it  because 

they  had  not  treated  properly  his  nation  Israel  ?     Was  it 

because  of  idolatry  on  their  part,  or  was  it  rather  because 

of  the  violation   of  some  dictate  of  universal   morality, 

some   principle  of    the  natural   laws   of    humanity   and 

mercy?1 

5.  Does    lehovah    really  care  for  the  observance  of  5:25;  5=21-23;  3: 
,  m;  5:5;  7:9; 

the  ceremonial?      Is   he  pleased  with   Israel's  pilgrim-      8:10;  9:1-4. 

ages?  Does  he  enjoy  their  feasts  and  songs?  Is 
he  not  actually  ready  to  destroy  their  places  of  wor- 
ship, and  to  put  an  end  even  to  worship  as  a  whole  ? 
What,  now,  does  Amos  really  mean  ?  Is  he  denouncing 
to  the  people  sacrifice  itself,  or  is  he  trying  to  change 
the  belief  of  the  people  that  sacrifice  duly  performed 
will  satisfy  the  mind  of  Jehovah  ?  Does  he  teach  that 
the  ritual  of  itself  cannot  meet  the  demands  of  an  ethical 
Deity  ?  Could  he  have  opposed  sacrifice  itself  without 
opposing  the  only  method  yet  known  to  humanity  of 
coming  into  communion  with  the  Deity?  Does  he  really 
wish  them  to  give  up  the  ritual  ? 

6.  If  something  beyond  the  ritual  is  demanded,  what   5:7-15,24. 
is  it  ?     Does  it  grow  out  of  Jehovah's  ethical  character, 

and  is  it  in  fact  an  ethical  demand  ?  Is  it  a  demand  for 
justice,  and  what  does  justice  include  except  honesty, 
integrity,  purity,  and  humanity?  Did  Amos  present  his 
demand  in  the  abstract  or  in  the  concrete  form  ?  And 
does  he,  after  all,  ask  anything  that  has  not  been  recog- 

1 W.  Robertson  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel  (2d  ed.),  p.  134. 


106  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

nized  as    necessary  by  all    nations   who   have   attained 

2:7 f.;  4:1;  5:1a;  governmental  organization  ?  Is  any  more  asked  of  Israel 
than  of  other  nations  ?  Is  it  obedience  to  mere  legal 
justice  that  is  called  for,  or  rather  consideration  of  the 

5:4, 6.  poor  and  weak — that  is,  moral  justice  ?    Is  any  statement 

of  reward  or  punishment  associated  with   the  demand  ? 

3:6-  In  the  language  of    the  prophet's  demand  and  in  the 

universality  of  its  character,  does  he  not  himself  resemble 
the  sage  ? 

5:i8ff.  7.  What  position,  now,  is  maintained  by  Amos  con- 

cerning Israel's  future,  and  what  is  his  conception  of  the 
day  of  Jehovah  ?     Is  Israel  to  suffer  punishment  ?     Will 

6:71,14;  7:8 f.,      this  punishment  mean  utter  destruction?     How  impor- 
17;  9:1-86.  .  . 

tant  a  place  does  this  thought  have  in  the  message  as  a 

whole  ?     Had  anyone  before  Amos  proposed  the  utter 

destruction  of    the  nation?     Was  the   overthrow   con- 

5:14 f.  templated    in  any   sense  political?     Is    the  sentence   a 

possibly  revocable  one  ?     Is  it  at  all  clear  that  Amos  saw 

a  brighter  picture  in  case  of  repentance  ?     Review   here 

the  considerations  for  and  against  assigning  9  :  8^-15  to 

a  later  date.     Is  it  possible  that  Amos,  being  from  Judah, 

expected  the  true  religion  to  be  continued  and  developed 

by  Judah  after  Israel    had  perished  ?      What  were  the 

essential  points  of  difference  between  Amos's  conception 

of  the  day  of  Jehovah  and  that  of  the  people  of  his 

times?2 

§  108.  The  Antecedents  of  Amos. — The  relation  of 
Amos  to  those  that  preceded  him  is  a  subject  which 
furnishes  many  interesting  questions  for  study.  To 
what  extent  was  Amos  a  creator  of  the  Israelitish  ethical 
monotheism;  or  to  what  extent  is  the  essential  content 
of  Amos's  teaching  rooted  in  the  past? 

1.  Consider  the  importance  of  this  question  in  the 
study  of  the  progress  of  the  Old  Testament  develop- 
ment, and  especially  in  determining  the  place  of  prophecy 
in  that  development.  Was  he,  perhaps,  instead  of  Moses, 
the  founder  of  the  religion  ?  If,  in  general,  Old  Testa- 
ment history,  like  other  histories,  is  an  evolution,  is  the 

2  See  J.  M.  P.   Smith,  "The  Day  of  Yahweh,"  American  Journal  of  Theology, 
Vol.  V  (1901),  pp.  505  ff. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS 


107 


movement  which  found  expression  through  Amos,  Hosea, 
and  Isaiah  exceptional  in  that  it  had  no  antecedents? 
Is  the  fact  that  Amos  makes  no  appeal  to  something 
earlier  than  his  own  work  —  for  example,  a  code  of  laws 
—  evidence  that  his  work  was  not  the  fruitage  of  the 
past? 

2.  Is  the  morality  which  he  demands  something  new 
or  of  long  standing  ?  Were  not  demands  for  this  same 
justice,  including  honesty,  humanity,  etc.,  made  in  the 
earliest  days  of  history  ?  Did  they  not  form  the  basis  of 
his  condemnation  of  other  nations  ?  Is  anything  more 
asked  of  Israel  than  of  them  ?  Does  Amos  in  his  pres- 
entation of  these  demands  assume  that  Israel  is  ignorant 
of  these  things;  or  is  aware  of  them,  and  negligent  of 
them,  and  therefore  deserving  the  punishment?  Is  it 
possible  to  explain  the  representation  of  Amos  as  an 
anachronism ;  or  as  a  piece  of  beautiful  rhetoric  ?  Could 
Israel  be  punished  justly  for  failing  to  observe  con- 
ditions or  demands  of  which  they  were  totally  ignorant  ? 
Could  Amos,  living  in  such  close  proximity  to  Jerusalem, 
have  been  ignorant  of  the  past  history  of  the  nation,  its 
literature,  and  its  laws  as  handed  down  by  tradition  ? 

3.  To  what  extent  does  Amos  show  a  knowledge  of 
Israel's  past  history  ?  How  far  did  Israel's  history  rest 
on  the  character  of  Jehovah  as  shown  in  history?  To 
what  extent  is  Amos  making  use  of  the  terminology  of 
prophecy  as  fixed  by  his  predecessors  ? 

4.  Does  he  concretely  express  appreciation  for  pre- 
ceding prophets?  Who  were  these  ?  Would  the  num- 
ber include  Elijah  and  Elisha,  J  and  E? 

5.  Is  it  quite  certain  that  Amos  knew  such  written 
documents  as  the  Decalogue  and  the  Book  of  the  Cove- 
nant ?  May  we  suppose  that,  in  addition  to  these  works, 
others  were  familiar  to  him  ?  (a)  Were  there  national 
songs  which  prepared  the  way  technically  as  well  as 
spiritually  for  his  work  ?  {b)  Would  these  include  the 
Song  of  Deborah,  the  Song  of  the  Red  Sea  in  its  earliest 
form,  the  blessing  of  Jacob,  as  well  as  Deut.,  chaps.  32 
and  33?  (c)  And  would  there  be,  in  addition,  proverbs 
and  folk-lore,  some  of  which  had  already  been  incorpo- 


C/.,  e.g.,  the  Book 
of  the  Dead, 
and  the  Code  of 
Hammurabi. 
1:3,  6, 13;  2:1. 


1:3,  6,  13;  2:9-12; 
3:1;  4:6-11; 
5:25;  6:5;  9  =  7- 


Exod.,  chaps.  34, 
20;  Deut.,  chap. 
5;  Exod.,  chaps. 
21-23. 

Judg.,  chap.  5; 
Exod.,  chap.  15; 
Gen.,  chap.  49. 


Gen.  4:231.;  25: 
23;  Judg.  9: 7-20. 


108  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

Numb.  21 :  27-30.  rated  in  J  and  E,  and  some  of  it  perhaps  preserved  in 
the  canonical  Book  of  Proverbs?     Does  Amos  himself 

Amos  9:4.  show  a  familiarity  in  his  own  address  with  the  folk-lore, 

and  with  the  speech  and  thought  of  the  common  people  ? 

§  109.  The  Ministry  of   Amos,   that  is,  the  external 

form  of  Amos's  work.     What  was  its  scope  ?     In  what 

did  it  consist? 

1  Kings,  chap.  13.  i.  Is  it  possible  that  the  story  of  the  man  of  Judah  is 

a  distorted  account  of  Amos's  ministry  ?3  Or  is  it  worth 
while  to  consider  the  suggestion  that  the  story  of  his 

Amos  7:14.  ministry,  together  with  that  of  Jonah,  is  a  later  invention 

or  fiction?4  What  is  a  natural  inference  to  be  drawn 
from  (a)  the  fact  that  no  miracle  or  wonder-story  is  con- 
nected with  his  work;  (&)  no  ecstatic  frenzy  is  suggested; 

7:1-9;  8:1  f  ■,  9:1;  an(j    /a    the    emphatic    statement    made    in    answer    to 

cf.  Isa.,  chap.  6;  \  /  r 

jer.  ini-19.  Amaziah?  Did  he  use  music,  as  did  Elisha,  to  pro- 
duce ecstatic  trance?  Did  he  have  visions?  Are  these 
to  be  compared  with  those  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  ? 
What  relation  did  the  visions  of  Amos  sustain  to  those 
of  the  past  and  those  of  the  future?  Does  he  in  receiv- 
ing his  message  follow  the  method  of  those  who  pre- 
ceded him  ?  In  his  own  method  of  presentation  does 
he  show  progress  ? 

2.  What  significance  lies  in  the  fact  that  Amos  was 
the  first  of  the  prophets  to  write  down  his  sermons? 
(a)  How  far  was  this  due  to  the  fact  that  Israel  is  now  for 
the  first  time  enjoying  the  privileges  of  civilization,  and 
therefore  literature?  To  what  extent  was  opportunity 
for  this  afforded  in  the  long  and  peaceful  reign  of 
Jeroboam  ?  To  what  extent  is  he  merely  following  the 
fashion  already  set  by  the  priests,  and  the  prophets  of  J 
and  E  ?  (b)  If  Israel's  religion  in  the  prophet's  mind 
stood  for  something  more  than  ritual  —  in  other  words, 
for  ideas  which  could  not  be  expressed  in  an  institution 
— was  writing  a  necessity  ?  Is  it  true  that  prophetic 
utterance  has  now  become  something  of  permanent 
value?  Has  the  prophet  himself  assumed  new  functions 
and  new  responsibilities? 

3  So  Wellhausen. 

*  So  Day  and  Chapin,  "Is  the  Book  of  Amos  Post-Exilic?"  American  Journal 
of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Vol.  XVIII  (1902),  pp.  65-93. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS  I OQ. 

3.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  influence  exerted  by 
the  earlier  prophets  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  later 
prophets?  How  far  did  the  earlier  work  wield  "an 
instantaneous  influence"?  Is  the  prophet  henceforth  to 
be  leader  of  the  masses  ?  Is  his  work  outwardly  to  be  a 
failure?  Is  he  compelled  to  put  his  words  in  writing 
because  of  his  ill  success  in  reaching  their  hearts? 

4.  How  could  permanent  interest  be  secured  without 
an  opportunity  to  read  and  study  the  prophetic  stories  ? 
Could  there  be  a  continuous  development  without  this? 
Would  it  be  necessary  for  the  prophet  to  write  out  his 
words  just  as  he  had  spoken  them  ?  Was  it  necessary 
that  the  prophet  himself  put  his  speeches  into  written 
form  ?  May  this  have  been  done  by  a  band  of  disciples  ? 
What  motive  could  have  existed  in  the  mind  of  Amos 
for  writing  down  his  addresses,  if  he  expected  the  end 
of  Israel  to  come  within  his  own  generation  ? 

§110.  The  Political  Activity  of  Amos. — This  deserves 
consideration,  especially  in  the  variation  which  it  pre- 
sents from  the  older  types. 

1.  Is  this  a  difference  in  fact  or  in  method  ?     Was  the   x  Kinss  i8:i7ff.; 

19:15-18;  21 : 

prophet's  influence  in  national  life  less  than  was  that  of      27  ff.;  2  Kings 
r     r  13:14  it- 

Elijah  and  Elisha?  Was  he  an  official  of  the  govern- 
ment? Did  he  sustain  a  special  relation  to  the  king? 
Was  he  more  than  a  private  citizen  ?  Did  he  establish 
any  organization  ?  Did  he  adopt  any  other  method  than 
that  of  preaching? 

2.  Consider  the  skill  with  which  Amos  announced   chaps.  1  and  2. 
his  political  views  concerning  the  nations.     What  are  the 

features  of  the  method  adopted,  and  what  may  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  motive  ? 

3.  Consider  the  political  insight  exhibited  in  his 
interpretation  of  Assyria's  relation  to  Israel. 

§111.  The  Stages  in  the  Ministry  of  Amos. —  Con- 
sider the  question  of  the  chronological  order  of  the 
stages  in  Amos's  ministry. 

1.  Did  he,  may  we  suppose,  while  in  Tekoa,  make 
visits  at  home  and  abroad,  and  in  such  visits  would  he 
learn  the  methods  and  work  of  the  prophets?  Might 
he  in  this  way  secure  information  concerning  the  world 
at  large  in  these  early  years  ? 


110  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

7:1-9.  2.  May  he,  in  visions  like  those  of  the  locust  and  fire, 

have  received  his  call  to  preach;  and,  in  a  vision  like 
that  of  the  plumb-line,  the  message  which  he  was  to 
preach,   namely,  the  irrevocable   destruction  of  Israel  ? 

5:4,6,14;  7:2  f.,  Did  he  perhaps  at  first  believe  that  the  doom  might  be 
averted  ?  But  is  he  gradually  convinced  that  there  is  no 
hope  unless  something  extraordinary  happens  ?  Does 
he  then  go  to  Northern  Israel,  amazed  that  all  do  not 
see  as  he  sees? 

Chaps.  1  and  2.  3.  Did  he  introduce  his  work,  may  we  suppose,  by  a 

proclamation  in  diplomatic  form  of  one  oracle  after 
another  concerning  Israel's  neighbors  ?  Were  these 
uttered  on  successive  days,  or  did  they  extend  perhaps 
over  months  ?     Does  he  in  time  announce  to  Israel  the 

2:6-16.  future  ruin,  and  does  he,   going  from  place  to   place, 

finally  reach  the  climax  of  his  work  at  Bethel  when 
utterance  is  given  to  the  words  contained  in  chap.  6  ? 

7:1-9.  4.  Is  it  possible  to  assume  that  at  this  point  he  is 

interrupted,  and  that  a  demand  is  made  for  his  authority, 
and  that  in  justification  of  his  words,  he  tells  the  story 
of  his  call  as  it  came  in  the  visions  of  the  locust,  fire, 
and  plumb-line,  closing  with  the  definite  announcement 
of  Jerusalem's  end  ? 

7:10-17.  5.  May  we  understand   that  this  is  followed  by  the 

attack  of  Amaziah  ?  Does  he  give  up  his  prophetic  work 
immediately,  or  does  he  continue  in  spite  of  the  priest's 
interference?  Is  it  possible  to  suppose  that  the  inter- 
ference was  a  friendly  one;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
Amos  strong  enough  to  defy  the  king's  command  and 
remain  permanently?  Is  it  more  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  he  continued  to  preach  until  he  had  finished  his 
message  ? 

Isa.,8:i6ff.  6.  Does  the   prophet   then    go  back   to  Judah   and 

gather  about  him  a  small  band  of  disciples,  to  whom,  as 
in  the  case  of  Isaiah  with  his  disciples,  he  turns  over  his 
sermons  and  his  visions? 

§  112.  The  Efficiency  of  the  Ministry  of  Amos. — 
1.  To  what  extent   is   there  a  lack  of  the  religious 
element  ?     Could  his  ministry  have  reached  many  minds  ? 
Did  he  himself  clearly  recognize  the  issue  involved  in 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    AMOS  III 

his  preaching?  Did  he  have  a  purpose,  or  is  he  like  a 
sage  advocating  a  new  philosophy  without  reference  to 
its  consequences  ? 

2.  To  what  extent  may  his  ministry  be  explained 
upon  the  supposition  that  it  contained  an  infusion  of 
the  new  spirit,  namely,  that  of  philosophical  inquiry  and 
the  acceptance  of  law?  In  what  sense  does  his  work 
furnish  the  basis  for  future  prophecy? 

§  113.  Literature  on  Amos. — 

On  the  teachings  of  Amos  see  especially:  the  commentaries  of  W.  R.  Harper 
(1905),  G.  A.  Smith,  Driver,  Mitchell,  Orelli,  Wellhausen,  Gunning, 
Nowack,  and  Marti;  and  also  Cheyne,  art.  "Amos,"  Encyclopedia  Biblica; 
Taylor,  art.  "Amos,"  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Driver,  art.  "Amos," 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2d  ed.);  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel  {2d  ed.), 
pp.  120-43;  Cornill,  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  37-46;  Kirkpatrick,  Doctrine  of  the 
Prophets,  pp.  83-108;  H.  P.  Smith,  Old  Testament  History,  pp.  211-18;  McCurdy, 
History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,  §§302-4,  937—41 ;  Budde,  Religion  of  Israel 
to  the  Exile,  pp.  133  ff.;  Davidson,  "The  Prophet  Amos,"  Expositor,  Vol.  V  (1887), 
pp.  161-73;  Mitchell,  "The  Idea  of  God  in  Amos,"  Journal  of  Biblical  Litera- 
ture, Dec,  1887,  pp.  33-42;  Paton,  "Did  Amos  Approve  the  Calf-Worship  at 
Bethel?"  ibid.,  Vol.  XIII  (1894),  pp.  80-91. 

Duhm,  Theologie  der  Propheten,  pp.  109-26;  Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestament- 
lichen  Religionsgeschichte  (2d  ed.,  pp.  179-86);  Lohr,  Untersuchungen  zum  Buck 
Amos,  pp.  28-36;  Meinhold,  Studien  zur  israelilischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Vol.1, 
pp.  31-63 ;  PROCKSCH,  Die  Geschichtsbetrachtung bei  Amos,  Hosea  und  Jesaia,  pp.  2-12  ; 
SEESEMANN,  Israel  und  Juda  bei  Amos  und  Hosea,  pp.  I— 17  ;  TESCH,  Setzt  der  Prophet 
Amos  atttoritatives  Gesetz  voraus?  Giesebrecht,  Die  Geschichtlichkeit  des  Sinai- 
bundes,  pp.  19  ff.;  MARTI,  Geschichte  der  israelilischen  Religion  (3d  ed.),  pp.  180  ff ; 
G.  Rothstein,  "Amos  und  seine  Stellung  innerhalb  des  israelitischen  Prophetismus," 
Theologische  Studien  und  Kritiken,  April,  1905;  Franckh,  Die  Prophetie  in  der  Z*it 
v or  Amos  [Beitrage  zur  Forderung  Christlicher  Theologie,  IX  (1905),  pp.  27-86]. 

§  114.  Constructive  Study. —  Consider  each  of  the  sections  101-112 
as  furnishing  the  basis  for  a  constructive  study  in  which  the  various 
points  suggested  in  the  questions  asked  shall  be  treated.  The  formu- 
lation of  the  subject  may  thus  be  presented  in  the  form  either  of 
propositions  or  of  a  more  general  discussion.  In  each  there  will  of 
course  be  incorporated  the  results  of  a  study  of  the  Scripture  material 
cited,  and  of  the  reading  pursued  in  the  list  of  literature  suggested. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    HOSEA. 

§115.  The  Personal  Life  of  Hosea. — In  the  history 
of  no  prophet  is  there  a  closer  connection  between  the 
message  and  the  personal  life  than  in  the  case  of  Hosea. 
And  since  Hosea's  work  was  performed  among  his  own 
people  rather  than  in  another  country  (cf.  Amos),  it  is 
especially  instructive  to  consider — 

1.  His  place  of  residence.    In  this  connection  one  may 
iChron.  5:6.          pass  over  the  views  (a)  that  Hosea  was  of  the  tribe  of 

Reuben  (compare  his  father's  name  Beeri  with  the  name 

SOs'6*'l'I*s*i4?'   Beerah),and  (^)  that  Hosea,  like  Amos,  went  up  from  Judah 

11:12,  etc.  t0  israei  —  a  view  based  upon  the  frequent  reference  to 

Judah  in  the  book.     But  would  these  passages,  even  if  all 

mi.  authentic,  prove  the  place  of  the  prophet's  work  ?    Is  this 

view  supported  by  anything  which  may  be  found  in  the 
superscription  or  by  the  prophet's  apparent  attitude  of 
leniency  toward  Judah  in  contrast  with  Israel  ?  Is  there 
any  evidence  that  the  book  was  written  out  in  Judah  after 
Hosea  had  left  Israel  ?  In  favor  of  Northern  Israel  as 
his  home  take  up  the  following  questions:  Does  the  lan- 
guage of  the  book  indicate  anything?     Is  there  any  evi- 

7:5;  6:10, 1.2.  dence  to  be  found  in  such  expressions  as  "the  land,"  "our 
king,"  etc.  ?  Does  he  show  any  special  interest  in  Northern 
Israel,  its  historical  conditions  and  foreign  relations,  and 

4:15; 5:1,8; 6:8,9;   its  political  parties?     Are  the  places  with  which  he  shows 

7:1;  8:5,6;  9:15;  r  r  r 

10:5,7,9,15;  familiarity  in  the  north  or  in  the  south  —  for  example, 
Mizpah,  Tabor,  Samaria,  Gilead,  Shechem,  Gilgal,  Bethel, 
Gibeah,  Ramah  ?  Does  he  speak  from  the  point  of  view  of 
a  visitor  or  a  resident  ?  How  important  is  this  question  of 
his  citizenship  in  the  Northern  kingdom? 

2.  The  suggestions  offered  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
word  "  Hosea."  Is  it  a  combined  word  made  up  of 
"Jehovah"  and  the  root  "to save"  (<:/.  Joshua),  or  simply 
a  word  meaning  "deliverance"?  Is  there  anything  sig- 
nificant in  the  name? 


12:  ii. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    HOSEA  I  1 3 

§116.     The  Date  and  Circumstances  of   Hosea's  Life 
and   Work. — Are  these  indicated  in  the  superscription?   1:1. 
Is  this  superscription  from  Hosea's  hand  or  from  a  later 
date?     In  what  respect  may  Hosea's  life  and  work  be 
compared  with  those  of  Jeremiah  ? 

1.  Consider  now  the  data  which  determine  the  begin- 
ning of  his  work  and  its  duration.     What  date  is  implied 

in  view  of  the  threat  concerning  Jezreel  ?     Would  his   1:4. 

marriage  and  the  birth  of  his  oldest  son  have  preceded? 

Is  evidence  to  be  found  that  he  preached  in  the  midst  of  1''\..\cf'    7:3ff-; 

the  anarchy  which  followed  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II.? 

Does  the  book  contain  any  allusion  to  the  Syro-Ephraim- 

itish  war?    If   not,  what    indication  does    this    give   of 

date?     Is  Gilead  in   Hosea's  times  a  part  of  Northern 

Israel?      But  was  not  Gilead  with  Naphtali  conquered   5:*;  6:8;  xa-.n. 

by  Assyria  in  734  B.  C.  ?     What  then  are  the  dates  within 

which  he  must  have  preached  ? 

2.  Consider  the  historical  events  of  the  period  indicated   2  Kings,  chap.  15. 
above  and  their  consistency  with  the  times  described  by 

Hosea;  for  example,  is  there  evidence  in  the  early  part  of 
the  book  of  prosperity  and  wealth?    On  the  other  hand,   Hos. 2:51, gff. 
does  the  situation  change  later?  Is  lawlessness  prevalent  ?   4:2;  5:1;  7:1. 
Is  the  political  situation  one  of  peril?     Are  the  leaders  5'H\^:"' 8:8; 
themselves  guilty?     Are  revolution  and   anarchy  prev-   4:8;  5:1;  9:15. 
alent?      How   does    Hosea's  description    of    the   times  5:*|j  7:II"» M:6; 
differ  from  that  of  Amos  ?     Which  of  the  two  saw  more 
widely?     Which  more  deeply? 

3.  Concerning  Hosea's  occupation  and  social  stand- 
ing, it  may  be  asked  whether  he  was  one  of  the  so-called 
prophets,  or  was  he,  like  Amos,  neither  prophet  nor  the 

son  of  a  prophet?  May  we  infer  from  a  familiarity  4:4,  &-9;  6:9. 
which  he  shows  with  the  evil  practices  of  the  priests  that 
he  himself  was  a  priest?  Is  there  anything  opposing 
this  view  ?  Is  there  evidence  of  any  kind  to  indicate 
whether  he  occupied  a  high  social  position  or  the 
opposite  ? 

§117.  Hosea's  Call  and  Preparation. — This  subject 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  that  will  present 
themselves  in  a  study  of  the  Book  of  Hosea.  The  diffi- 
culty and  the  delicacy  of  the  subject  are  apparent,  but  a  ' 


114  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

careful  examination  of  the  material,  and  the  various  views 
that  have  .been  presented  concerning  it,  will  give  a  clear 
insight  into  Hosea's  character  and  the  significance  of  his 
personal  experience  as  determining  the  nature  of  his 
message. 

1:2-9.  1.  Make   a  thorough  study  of    the    narrative  which 

describes  the  harlotry  of  Hosea's  wife,  and  in  connection 
with  this  the  narrative  of  the  purchase  of  Gomer  as  a 

3:1-4.  slave  and  her  retention  many  days,  and  prepare  a  brief 

statement  of  the  thought  contained  in  these  two  pas- 
sages, keeping  in  mind  that,  whatever  view  may  be  taken 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  remaining  verses  of  the  first 
three  chapters,  these  passages  contain  the  actual  narra- 
tive concerning  Hosea  and  his  wife. 

2.  Consider  whether  this  transaction  is  to  be  regarded 
as  (a)  a  vision  or  trance,  something  that  never  actually 
happened  in  real  life;  or  (3)  as  a  parable  or  allegory. 
Could  a  prophet  have  done  the  thing  here  described  ? 
Is  the  woman  of  3  :  1  the  same  as  in  chap.  1  ?  And  did 
Hosea  have  two  marriages  of  the  same  kind  ?  Did  the 
prophets  sometimes  represent  themselves  as  commanded 

Ezek.  4:1-8, 9-17.  to  do  strange  things?  Could  Hosea  psychologically 
have  received  such  a  command  ?  Or  (c)  is  the  trans- 
action to  be  understood  literally?  Does  the  prophet 
indicate  in  any  way  that  it  was  a  vision?  Is  the  thing 
commanded  less  objectionable  in  a  vision  than  in  actual 

isa. 7:3;  8:1-4.  practice?  Was  it  the  custom  of  prophets  to  give  sym- 
bolical names  to  real  children  ?  Is  a  real  experience 
of  this  kind  consistent  with  the  message  which  Hosea 
preached  ?  But  (d),  if  it  is  taken  literally,  are  we  to  under- 
stand that  Gomer  was  a  harlot  when  Hosea  married  her  ? 
Or  is  it  possible  (e)  that  spiritual  fornication  is  meant, 
since  Gomer  was,  like    other   Israelites,   an   idolatress  ? 

Hos.i:2.  Or  may  we  understand   (/)  that  the  phrase  "  a  wife  of 

whoredom  "  may  mean  one  who,  although  chaste  at  the 
time  of  marriage,  had  in  her  a  tendency  to  impurity 
which  manifested  itself  after  marriage  ?  Does  this  view 
cover  the  facts  of  the  narrative  ?  Does  it  remove  the  moral 
difficulties  ?  Does  it  furnish  a  reasonable  basis  for 
Hosea's  love  for  his  wife  ?     Will  it  furnish  explanation 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    HOSEA  I  I  5 

of   the  mental  process  through   which   Hosea  came  to 
realize  Jehovah's  love  for  Israel  ? 

3.  Trace  the  connection  between  the  symbolical 
names  given  tothechildren  and  the  progress  of  the  thought 
in  Hosea's  mind,  and  at  the  same  time  take  up  the  close 
connection  between  chap.  3  and  chap.  1.  Is  the  old 
relationship  of  wife  re-established?  In  what  position  is  3:1-4 
the  wife  placed  at  the  close?  Is  the  period  of  seclusion  3:4. 
—  namely,  "many  days" — a  definite  period? 

4.  Consider  the  following  questions  :  If  we  restrict 
the  narrative  to  1:2-9  and  3:  1-4,  is  the  conclusion  of 
the  story  furnished  ?  Is  there  any  inconsistency  between 
the  representation  made  of  a  love  so  strong  that  it 
leads  the  husband  to  do  strange  things,  and  the  usual 
Israelitish  custom  in  accordance  with  which  the  wife  was  Exod.  22:16  f. 
the  property  of  the  husband?     How  long  a  period  must 

these  transactions   have  covered  ?      What  was    Hosea's 
domestic  situation  during  these  years? 

5.  Consider  these  additional  points:  Might  a  call  to 
prophecy  come  through  a  personal  experience  as  well  as 
in  a  vision?     Was  the  chief  teaching  of  these  domestic 
experiences  the  announcement  of  Israel's  destruction,  or 
the  announcement  of  Jehovah's  love  for  Israel  in  spite  of 
faithlessness?     If  Gomer  was   a  harlot   at   the   time  of 
marriage,  why  was    she   called    "wife    of    whoredom"   Hos.  1:2. 
rather   than   harlot?     Is  this   command   of    Jehovah  to 
marry  such   a   woman   to   be    compared   with   Scripture 
representations  concerning  the  hardening  of   Pharaoh's  Exod.  10:1. 
heart  and  the  command  to  Isaiah,  and  were  these  really  isa.  6:9f. 
commands?     Could  these  experiences  have  been  used  in 
communicating    to    the    people    the  thought  which   the 
experience  itself  brought  to  the  prophet? 

6.  Is  it  to  be  understood  that  the  prophet  in  writing 
out  the  story  of  his  experiences  at  a  later  time  introduced 

into  the  story  much  of  his  later  history.  Did  Isaiah  do  isa.,  chap.  6. 
this  in  the  story  of  his  call,  and  Jeremiah  likewise?  jer., chap.  1. 
May  we  understand,  then,  that  there  first  came  the  experi- 
ence, after  that  the  recognition  of  the  truth  which  it 
suggested,  and  still  later  the  writing  out  of  the  experi- 
ence in  the  light  of  this  truth?  Is  there  anything 
analogous  to  this  in  Amos  ? 


Il6  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

7.  To  what  extent  did  the  old  Semitic  conception, 
that  the  national  deity  was  the  husband  of  the  land, 
afford  a  basis  for  Hosea's  interpretation  of  his  experi- 
ence? Supposing  this  to  be  the  basis,  what  new  thought 
does  he  introduce  ? 
§  118.  The  Character  of  Hosea. — Consider  the  facts  and  the  material 
of  the  book,  and  picture  to  yourself  the  character  of  the  author,  Hosea. 

1.  In  what  respects  did  Hosea's  strength  differ  from  that  of  Amos  ? 

2.  In  what  respects  was  his  character  complex,  as  compared  with  the 
simplicity  of  the  character  of  Amos  ? 

3.  Compare  closely  the  character  of  Jeremiah  with  that  of  Hosea, 
and  indicate  the  points  of  resemblance? 

4.  Does  any  other  personality  in  Old  Testament  history  exhibit  so 
affectionate  a  character  ? 

5.  Was  Hosea  strongly  ethical  or  rather  strongly  religious?  Cf. 
Amos. 

6.  Was  Hosea,  because  of  his  emotional  character  and  the  com- 
plexity of  his  temperament,  illogical  ? 

7.  To  what  extent  did  Hosea  represent  the  national  type  ? 

§  1 19.  The  Message  of  Hosea. — Consider  in  general  the  importance 
of  the  message  and  the  facts  which  contribute  to  it  a  special  interest. 

1.  Is  the  message  a  strongly  personal  one,  and  is  this  personal  ele- 
ment so  pervasive  as  to  give  it  a  prominence  over  and  above  the  politi- 
cal and  religious  factors  ? 

2.  Is  there  a  remarkable  relationship  between  the  message  of  Hosea 
and  that  of  Amos,  both  being  required  to  secure  a  complete  conception? 

3.  Is  there  any  significance  in  the  fact  that  this  message  is  given 
within  a  few  years  of  the  end  of  the  Northern  kingdom  ? 

4.  Is  it  true  that  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  verses  contained  in  the 
Book  of  Hosea  are  to  be  regarded  as  insertions  and  additions  from  the 
point  of  view  of  later  prophets,  and  will  this  affect  somewhat  the  formu- 
lation of  Hosea's  message  ? 

5.  Consider  whether  the  general  thought  of  Hosea  may  be  connected 
with  the  following  topics,  and  formulate  a  proposition  presenting  his 
thought  concerning  each  of  the  subjects  named:  (a)  Israel's  character 
and  condition;  (b)  Israel's  future;  (c)  Jehovah's  relation  to  Israel;  {d) 
Israel's  conception  of  Jehovah;  (e)  Israel's  acts  of  repentance;  (/)  the 
outcome  of  Israel's  present  attitude  toward  Jehovah. 

6.  Consider  what  Amos  had  said  that  did  not  need  to  be  said  over 
again  by  Hosea,  and  also  what  Amos  had  not  said  which  Hosea  must 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    HOSEA  I  1 7 

now  say.  For  example,  did  Amos  present  any  plan  for  a  restoration  ? 
Did  Amos  lay  emphasis  upon  Jehovah's  love,  or  upon  universal  law? 
If  the  latter,  what  was  the  next  problem  to  be  solved  ?  Was  it  necessary 
for  Hosea  to  promise  redemption,  or  would  it  be  sufficient  if  he  would 
show  that  redemption  was  possible?1  Had  the  popular  feeling  on 
fundamental  questions  changed,  or  was  it  practically  the  same  as  at  the 
time  of  Hosea's  utterances  ? 

§120.  The  Convictions  of  Hosea.  —  Recognizing  the 
fact  that  Hosea,  when  compared  with  Amos,  deals  dif- 
ferently with  the  same  questions,  the  one  being  deeper, 
while  the  other  is  broader;  the  one  being  strongly  reli- 
gious, the  other  strictly  ethical;  consider  the  more 
important  points  upon  which  expression  is  made: 

1.  The  omnipotence  of  Jehovah.  Is  this  idea  as 
important  in  Hosea's  scheme  of  thought  as  it  was  in  that 

of  Amos?     How  does  Hosea  represent  Jehovah's  power   Hos.  2:8-,  4:3;  9:2; 
over  nature,  and  in  what  way  does  he  describe  the  power 
of  Jehovah  in  history?     Is  he   interested  in  Jehovah's   xx: l\3> *'•  ,2:9- IO"> 
work  outside  of  Israel? 

2.  Was  Hosea  more  truly  monotheistic  than  Amos  ? 

Is  Jehovah  represented  as  a  national  God?     Is  Hosea's  3:4;  9:3;  13:4. 

representation    of   Jehovah    anthropomorphic?     Is    the  6:5; 5:X4;  I3:7'- 

manner  of  his  representation   of  Jehovah  influenced  by  5:x.°'.Mt;  ":I4; 
his  own  poetic  nature? 

3.  How  are  we  to  account  for  the  fact  that  Hosea  8:5, 6;  3:1;  13:2. 
attacks  the  image-worship  of  the  times,  which  was  passed 

over  in  silence  by  Elijah,  Elisha,  and  Amos?  Why 
should  Hosea  have  taken  this  position  rather  than  Amos  ? 

4.  Prove  that  Hosea's  fundamental  idea  of  Jehovah  is    6:7. 
that  of  a  God  of  love.    What,  in  detail,  is  the  significance 

of  the  word  "love"  used  of  Jehovah  by  Hosea?  What  is 
involved  in  the  exercise  of  this  feeling  on  the  part  of 
both  Jehovah  and  Israel  ?  What  words  or  phrases  may 
be  used  as  synonyms  to  express  the  idea  contained  in  the 
word  translated  "  love"  ?  What,  according  to  the  prophet, 
is  the  relationship  of  this  feeling  to  religion  itself? 

5.  From  a  study  of  the  passages  cited,  formulate  the  2:8;  4/l~6  5:4; 
substance  of  Hosea's  most  bitter  complaint  against  Israel. 

Explain  what  is  the  full  meaning  of  the  word  "know"  as 

1  Cf.  George  Adam  Smith,  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets,  Vol.  I,  p.  229. 


I  1 8  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

used  in  these  passages.     What  knowledge  of  God  is  it 

that   Hosea  has  here  in  mind?     Something  which  the 

nation  once  possessed,  but  has  lost,  or  is  it  something 

4:1  ff.;  6ff.; 5:1  ff.  really  new?     Why  is  it  that  the  people  do  not  reach  up 

2:8;  4:6.  to  this  new  knowledge  ?     And  in  what  way  is  it  possible 

for  Israel  to  gain  a  true  knowledge  of  Jehovah  ? 
2:2;  3:1.  6.   If  Jehovah  is  the  husband  of  Israel,  or  if  he  is  the 

II  :i.  father  of  Israel,  what  relation  does  he  sustain  to  outside 

nations  ?     Is   Hosea  much   concerned   with  the  outside 

world  ?     What  evidence  is  there  that  Jehovah  occupies  a 

place   of  superiority  in   the  outside  world  ?     Why  was 

Hosea  indifferent  to  the  world  at  large? 

4:131;  6:6;  8:11-  7.  Formulate  a  statement  representing  Hosea's  mes- 

13;  13:1  f.; 
chap.  10, passim,   sage  on  the  cultus,  and  compare  with  this  the  thought  of 

Amos.     Why  is  the  Canaanitish  worship   distasteful  to 

Hosea  ?     Why  is  he  opposed  to  calf-worship  ?     Does  he 

give  larger  consideration  to  the  cultus  than  does  Amos  ? 

4:|; 5:1;  10:13;  8.  Prepare  a  statement  expressing  Hosea's  concep- 

tion of  the  immorality  of  Israel  in  those  days.  What  is 
the  occasion  of  this  general  immorality?  Is  it  encour- 
aged by  the  priests  ?  Why  ?  What  methods  does  Hosea 
adopt  to  bring  about  a  reform  in  this  particular? 

8:4-6-  9.  Prepare    a   statement    representing    the    political 

situation  at  home  and  abroad  as  represented  by  Hosea. 

In  what  respect  has  the  home  policy  been  wrong?    Does 

he  condemn  the  disruption  of  the  kingdom   which   took 

7:I-8;  8:4-13;        place  in  the  days  of  Rehoboam  ?     What  is  his  attitude 
10:8  ff.  r  J 

toward  the  anarchy  of  his  own  time?  What  about  the 
foreign  policy?  Exactly  what  was  it,  and  what  was  its 
weakness  ? 

10.  What  was  Hosea's  interpretation  of  Israel's  past 

history?     What  interpretation  of  this  same  history  had 

been  made  before  the  days  of  Hosea,  and  what  two  great 

1:4;  5:13;  7:3-7,     interpretations  follow?    Formulate  in  some  detail  Hosea's 

13 ft.;  9:14;  ix:  r 

1;  12:3, 91  point  of  view  and  the  great  religious  lesson  which  he 

based  upon  it. 

1:10— a:i.  14-16,  II#  if  14:1-8  comes  from  a  later  hand,  compare  also 

18-23;  3:5;  11:  »  r 

10  f-  other  suspected    passages    with    Hosea's    representation 

concerning  Israel's  immediate  future.  Present  in  con- 
trast his  conception  of  the  future  on  the  supposition  that 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    HOSEA  II9 

these  passages  come  from  his  pen.  What  considerations 
how  may  be  urged  in  this  connection  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  passages  cited?     In  any  case,  is  not  Hosea's 

conception  of  Jehovah  one  which  furnishes  a  basis  for  a  2.2;  5:4;  6:6-,  10: 

12. 
hopeful  future?     Did  he  teach  the  possibility  of  repent-   13:14- 

ance?     Did  he  expect  Israel  to  repent? 

12.  Consider  two  additional  points  in  reference  to 

Hosea's  message :     (a)  To  what  extent  did  he  make  use 

of  the  nation's  past  history,  and  where  did  he  get  his 

material?     Is  it  possible  that  he  may  have  made  use  of   c/.8:ia;  9:10; 

oral  tradition?     Did  he  have  information  which  no  pre-    c/.  8:13;  9:3, 10; 

10 :g;  11  :i,  5; 

ceding  document  still  in  existence  furnished?  Did  he  13:4 f. 
exercise  a  judgment  concerning  the  past,  differing  from  c/!  "4;  10:5. 
that  of  those  who  preceded  him?  (b)  In  what  sense  now 
may  the  character  of  Hosea's  message  be  said  to  be  typi- 
cally Israelitish?  Was  his  message  a  true  expression  of 
the  national  spirit?  In  what  respects  may  the  message 
of  Hosea  be  contrasted  with  that  of  Amos? 

§  121.  The  Ministry  of  Hosea. — What  is  the  external  form  of  his 
work?  What  was  its  scope?  In  what  did  it  consist?  Remembering 
that  the  ministry  of  Hosea  was  that  of  a  poet,  not  a  philosopher;  that 
of  a  mystic,  not  a  moralist  —  consider  the  following  topics: 

1.  In  the  reception  of  his  call  to  preach  and  the  message  which  he 
was  to  preach,  what  method  was  definitely  employed  ?  Through  how 
many  years  did  this  experience  continue?  What  was  the  nature  of  the 
experience?  How  may  we  in  a  practical  way  explain  the  reception  of 
the  message  by  the  prophet  ? 

2.  In  the  presentation  of  his  message  to  the  people,  what  methods 
were  employed  ?  Was  the  use  of  symbolical  names  for  children  a  good 
method?  May  we  suppose  that  he  made  a  public  statement  of  the 
story  of  his  discourse,  and,  if  so,  for  what  purpose  ? 

3.  Did  he  preach  ?  What  was  the  important  purpose  of  his  dis- 
course ?  How  many  of  these  discourses  have  been  preserved  ?  What 
may  be  said  as  to  the  character  of  these  discourses  from  the  point  of 
view  of  public  delivery  ? 

4.  Did  he  follow  the  example  of  Amos  in  committing  his  addresses 
to  writing? 

5.  How  may  we  contrast  the  ministry  of  Hosea  with  that  of  Amos 
in  its  relation  to  political  activity?  Did  Hosea  occupy  any  public 
position  ?     Did   he   come   into   contact,  so  far  as  we  know,  with  the 


120  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

government  ?  Was  it,  in  other  words,  a  private  rather  than  a  public 
ministry?  Were  the  political  conditions  of  his  times  peculiarly  diffi- 
cult? Was  he  more  severe  toward  the  prophetic  policy  of  the  past  than 
toward  that  of  his  own  times  ? 

§  122.  Stages  in  the  Ministry  of  Hosea. 

i.  Criticise  in  detail  the  following  hypothesis  concerning  the 
chronological  order  of  the  various  stages  in  his  ministry:2 

a)  At  the  time  of  his  marriage  (750  B.  C.  ?)  he  was  presumably  a  young 
man,  and,  if  his  occupation  was  that  of  a  priest,  his  mind  had  been  dwelling 
on  sacred  things  for  many  years.  At  first  hand  he  gained  his  knowledge  of 
the  evil  practices  of  his  fellow-priests,  and  their  close  associates,  the  prophets. 

b)  Within  two  or  three  years  (747  B.  C.)  he  had  satisfied  himself  as  to  the 
doom  of  Jehu's  dynasty;  this  was  announced  in  connection  with  the  birth  of 
his  son  (Jezreel).  He,  doubtless,  expected  Israel's  collapse  to  be  contempo- 
raneous. 

c)  Within  six  or  seven  years  the  tragedy  of  his  life  has  been  enacted ;  the 
real  call  to  preach  has  come;  the  great  message  has  been  received;  Jeroboam 
has  died,  and  anarchy  has  set  in;  important  announcements  concerning  the 
future  have  been  made  (in  the  symbolic  names  given  the  three  children  of 
his  wife). 

d)  During  the  next  six  or  seven  years  (742-735  B.  C),  with  his  wife  put 
away  (for  he  cannot  now  live  with  her,  however  much  he  loves  her),  he 
preaches  his  impassioned  sermons,  breathing  into  them  all  the  warmth  and 
all  the  pain  of  an  agonizing  heart.  These  are  the  years  of  revolution  and 
vacillation,  of  decay  approaching  close  to  death  —  years  without  any  hope, 
yet  with  a  faith  in  Jehovah  that  is  strong  and  steadfast. 

e)  What  next?  We  do  not  know.  It  is  improbable  that,  like  Amos,  he 
left  home  and  went  to  Judah,  there  to  put  his  writings  into  form,  and  to  include 
the  Judaistic  references  which  are  in  the  present  book.  It  is  probable  that  he 
was  spared  the  worst  agony  of  all,  that  of  seeing  Samaria  in  ruins  and  Israel 
carried  captive.     We  have  nothing  from  his  lips  or  pen  later  than  735  B.  C. 

2.  Present  considerations  which  may  be  offered  to  prove  the  effi- 
ciency of  Hosea's  ministry.  What  is  its  real  success,  notwithstanding 
the  failure  of  the  prophet  to  turn  people  from  their  sins  and  to  save 
the  nation  from  destruction  ? 

§  123.     Literature  on  Hosea. 

For  presentations  of  the  teachings  of  Hosea  see:  The  introductions  to  the 
various  Commentaries,  especially  those  of  Cheyne  {Cambridge  Bible),  George  Adam 
Smith  (Expositor's  Bible),  Ewald,  Wunsche,  Valeton  (Amos  und  Hosea),  Nowack 
(Hand-Kommentar  znm  Allen  Testament),  Marti  (Kurzer  Hand-Kommentar  zum 
Allen  Testament),  and  W.  R.  Harper  ("International  Critical  Commentary,"  1905;. 

2See  Amos  and  Hosea  ("International  Critical  Commentary,"  1905),  pp.  clvii  f. 


THE    PROPHETIC    MESSAGE    OF    HOSEA  121 

Special  discussions  are:  A.  B.  Davidson,  "The  Prophet  Hosea,"  Expositor, 
ist  Series,  Vol.  IX  (1879),  pp.  241-64;  W.  R.  Smith,  art.  "Hosea,"  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (1881);  Idem,  Prophets  of  Israel  (1892,  2d  ed.,  1895),  pp.  144-90;  KlRK- 
patrick,  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets  (1892,  3d  ed.,  1901),  pp.  109-42;  Idem,  art.  "  Hosea," 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  B idle  (2d  ed.,  1893);  Cornill,  Prophets  of  Israel  (1894, 
English  1898),  pp.  47-55;  L.  B.  Paton,  "Notes  on  Hosea's  Marriage,"  Journal  of 
Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XV  (1896),  pp.  9-18;  A.  B.  Davidson,  art.  "Hosea,"  Has- 
tings's Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  II  (1899);  Budde,  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile 
(1899),  pp.  45  ff.;  W.  R.  Smith  and  Karl  Marti,  art.  "Hosea,"  Encyclopedia 
Biblica,  Vol.  II  ( 1 901). 

Duhm,  Die  Theologie  der  Prophelen  (1875),  pp.  126-41;  Lagrange,  "La  nou- 
velle  histoire  d'Israe'l  et  le  prophete  Osee,"  Revue  Biblique,  Vol.  I  (1892),  pp.  203-38; 
Smend,  Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgeschichte  (1893,  2d  ed.,  1899),  pp. 
204-18  ;  Oettli,  "  Der  Kultus  bei  Amos  und  Hosea,"  Greifswalder  Studien  (1895),  pp. 
I-34>  VoLZ,  Die  vorexilische  Jahweprophetie  und  der  Messias  (1897),  pp.  24-40; 
Seesemann,  Israel  undjuda  bei  Amos  und  Hosea,  nebst  einem  Exkurs  iiber  Ho.  1-3 
(1898);  Volz,  "Die  Ehegeschichte  Hosea's,"  Zeitschrift  fur  wissenschaftliche  Theo- 
logie, 1898,  pp.  321-35;  Procksch,  Die  Geschichtsbetrachtung  bei  Amos,  Hosea  und 
Jesaia  (1901);  Oettli,  Amos  und  Hosea,  zwei  Zeugen  gegen  die  Anzvendung  der 
Evolutionstheorie  auf  die  Religion  Israels (1901);  Nowack,  "Die  Zukunftshoffnungen 
Israels  in  der  Assyrischen  Zeit"  in  Theologische  Abhandlungen  (Festgabe  fur  H.  J. 
Holtzmann,  1902),  pp.  33-59;  Riedel,  Alttestamentliche  Untersuchungen,  Heft  I 
(1902),  pp.  1-15;  Boehmer,  "Die  Grundgedanken  der  Predigt  Hosea's,"  Zeitschrift 
fiir  wissenschaftliche  Theologie,  Vol.  XLV  (1902),  pp.  1-24;  Meinhold,  Studien  zur 
israelitischen  Religionsgeschichte,  I :   Der  heilige  Rest  (1903),  pp.  64-88. 

§  124.  Constructive  Study. —  On  the  basis  of  the  results  reached 
through  the  foregoing  study  and  in  the  light  of  the  literature  cited  in 
§  123,  prepare  a  positive,  constructive  statement  of  the  message  of 
Hosea,  giving  special  attention  to  (1)  his  call  and  preparation,  (2)  his 
relation  to  Amos,  (3)  his  diagnosis  of  Israel's  religious  condition,  and 
(4)  his  conception  of  God. 


Appendixes 


D.  A  Table  of  Important  Dates. 

B.  A  Chronological  Table  of  the  Religious  Life  of  Israel. 

C.  The  Prophetic  Vocabulary. 

D.  Analysis  of  the  Hexateuch. 


APPENDIX  A. 

TABLE  OF  IMPORTANT  DATES. 


Israel. 

B.C. 

Other  Countries. 

Hebrew  clans  in  Canaan  (Gen.  14). 

c.  2250 

Hammurabi,  king  of  Babylon. 

c,  1700 

Hyksos  enter  and  subdue  Egypt. 

Jacob -clans  enter  Goshen. 

c.  1500 

Hyksos  expelled  from  Egypt. 

c.  1400 

Tell-el-Amarna  letters. 

c.  12Q3-1226 

Ramses  II.  (Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression). 

Israel  defeated  in  Canaan  by  Merneptah. 

c.  1226-1198 

Merneptah. 

Exodus  of  Jacob -clans  from  Goshen. 

c.  1198-1167 

Ramses  III. 

Philistines  enter  Canaan. 

Jacob-clans  enter  Canaan. 

c.  1150 

Deborah  and  Barak  (Judg.  5). 

C.   IIOO 

Gideon. 

Abimelech. 

Jephthah. 

Eli. 

Philistine  oppression. 

Samuel. 

c.  1040 

Saul. 

c.  1025 

David  becomes  king. 

c.  1000 

Jerusalem  captured  and  made  the  capital. 

Solomon. 

c.  970 

Temple  completed. 

c.  960 

Disruption. 

933 

JUDAH. 

ISRAEL. 

Rehoboam. 

Jeroboam  I. 

933 

Wars  between  Ju- 

dah  and  Israel. 

Shishak  invades  Ju- 

dah  and  Israel. 

929 

Shishak  I,  of  Egypt. 

Abijam. 

916 

Wars  between  Ju- 

dah  and  Israel. 

Asa. 

Nadab. 

912 

War  against  Philistia. 

Philistia  invaded  by  Israel. 

Baasha. 

911 

Wars    between  Ju- 

dah  and  Israel. 

900 

Rise  of  Damascus. 

Asa  appeals  to  Da- 

mascus  for  aid  against 

c .  890 

Ben-hadad  of  Damascus  invades  Israel. 

Israel. 

Northern  campaigns  of  Tukulti-Ninib  II. 

Baasha  loses  territory 

to  Syria. 

Elah. 

War  against  Philistia. 

Philistia  attacked  by  Elah  of  Israel. 

Zimri. 

Omri. 

885 

Civil  war ;  factions  led 

Ashurnasirpal  III.;  northern  campaigns,  885, 

by  Omri  and  Tibni. 

884,  883,  880,  867 ;  eastern  campaigns,  882, 

Tibni  slain. 

881 ;  campaigns  in  west  Mesopotamia,  884, 

Omri  builds  Samaria. 

879,  878-875  ( ? ) ;   reaches   Mediterranean, 

Long  peace  between 

Judah  and  Israel. 

876  (?) 

Ahab. 

875 

Alliance  with  Phoeni- 

Phoenicia  and  Israel  allied. 

Jehoshaphat. 

Wars  with  Syria. 

872 

Wars  between  Syria  and  Israel. 

c.  860 

Mesha's  revolt;  Moabite  stone. 

860-825 

Shalmaneser  II.;  constant  war;  campaigns 
in  Babylonia,  852,  851 ;  jn  west  Mesopo- 
tamia, 859-856;  in  south  Syria,  854,  849, 
846,  842,  839;  in  central  Syria,  850,  843, 
841,  832;  in  north  Syria  and  northwest, 
840,  838,  837,  835,  834;  in  north,  860,  855, 
853.  845,  833,  831-828;  in  east,  844,  836. 

First   contact  with 

854 

Assyria;    battle  of 

Karkar. 

125 


126 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


APPENDIX  A  —  Continued. 


JUDAH. 


Israel. 


B.C. 


Other  Countries. 


Jehoshaphat     aids 


Jehoshaphat     aids 

Jehoram. 

Revolt  of  Edom  and 

Libnah. 
Ahaziah. 

Ahaziah  aids  Joram 
Ahaziah    slain     by 

Jehu. 
Athaliah. 
Joash. 
Joash  gives  tribute 

to    Hazael    of 

Syria. 


Amaziah. 

War  against  Edom. 

Jehoash  smites 

Jerusalem. 
Uzziah. 


Total  eclipse  of  sun 


Jotham. 


Ahaz 

Judah    invaded    by 

Ahaz   sends   tribute 
to  Tiglath-pileser. 


Ahab  against  Syria. 

Ahaziah. 

Joram. 

Joram  against  Moab. 


War  against  Syria, 
against  Syria. 
Joram  slain  by  Jehu. 
Jehu  tributary  to 
Shalmaneser  II. 

Hazael  smites  Gilead, 
Gad,  Gath,  etc. 


Jehoahaz. 

Syria's   long   oppres- 
sion of  Israel. 


Jehoash. 

Victories  over  Syria. 


War  with  Amaziah. 


Jeroboam  II. 
Syria  expelled   from 
Israel. 


on  June  15,  visible  in 
Syria. 


Zechariah  (6 months). 
Shallum  (1  month). 
Menahem. 

Menahem  sends 
tribute  to  Tiglath- 
pileser. 

Pekahiah. 

Pekah. 

Pekah  and  Rezin  of 
Syria. 

Tiglath-pileser 
deports  inhabitants 
of  Gilead,  Galilee, 
and  Naphtali. 

Hoshea,  an  Assyrian 

Vassal. 
Hoshea    rebels 

against  Assyria. 

Siege  of  Samaria. 
Fall  of  Samaria. 


853 
850 

843 
842 


836 

c,  830 


827-822 

825-812 

814 


812-783 


c.  800 
797 


c.  785 
783 


783-773 


773-755 

763 
755-745 
745-727 


739 
738 


736 
735 


733 
730 


War  between  Syria  and  Israel. 

Moab  attacked  by  Israel,  Judah,  and  Edom. 
Edom  and  Libnah  rebel  against  Judah. 
War  between  Syria  and  Israel. 


Hazael   of    Damascus    smites    Gilead,    Gad, 
Gath,  etc. 

Insurrection  in  Assyria. 

Sharrishi-Adad  IV.;  quells  insurrection,  822; 
three  campaigns  in  north;  six  in  Babylonia. 
Syria  humiliates  Israel. 


Adadnirari  III.;  campaigns  against  Syria 
and  reduction  of  Damascus,  806-803,  797 ; 
eight  campaigns  against  Medes;  six  cam- 
paigns in  Northeast. 

Ethiopians  subdue  Upper  Egypt. 

Syria  defeated  by  Israel  in  days  of  Jehoash. 
War  between  Edom  and  Judah. 


Syria  repulsed  by  Israel. 

Shalmaneser  III. ;  decline  of  Assyria  and 
growth  of  kingdom  of  Urartu;  campaigns 
against  Aramaeans  in  north  Babylonia, 
against    Urartu,    and    against    Damascus 

(773)- 
Ashurdan  III. ;   Assyria's  decline  continued ; 
campaigns  in  central  Syria,  772,  765;   in- 
surrection in  Assyria,  763. 


Ashurnirari  II. ;  campaign  against  Arpad, 
754;  downfall  of  dynasty  in  Assyria. 

Tiglath-pileser  III.;  revival  of  Assyria; 
campaigns  against  Aramaeans  in  Baby- 
lonia, 745;  in  East,  744,  737;  in  Syria, 
against  Arpad,  743-740;  against  Hamath, 
738;  against  Damascus,  Israel,  and  Phi- 
listia,  734-732;  against  Kaldi,  731,  729,  728. 


Damascus  joins  Israel  against  Judah. 


Kingdom  of  Damascus  destroyed. 


Shalmaneser  IV. ;    campaign  against  Syria 
and  Palestine,  siege  of  Samaria  (724-722). 


Sargon  ;  acme  of  Assyrian  power ;  expedition 
to  the  West,  722. 


APPENDIXES 


127 


APPENDIX  B. 

CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE    OF    THE     RELIGIOUS    LIFE    OF    ISRAEL. 


I?,  c. 

Prophetic  Activity. 

Extra- Prophetic. 

c.  1200 

Moses. 

Observance  of  old  institutions;   <■.£.,  Sacri- 

The covenant  at  Sinai. 

fice,    Circumcision,    Clean    and    Unclean, 

Judges  foster  a  spirit  of  patriotism  and  reli- 
gion. 

Spring  Feasts,  Feasts  of  the  Moon,  Vows, 

Fasts,  Sabbath,  the  Ark,  the  Tent  of  Meet- 

Deborah, and  Judg.,  chap.  5. 

ing,  Founding  of  the  Sanctuary  at  Dan. 

Divine  will  sought  through  Ephod.Teraphim, 

Gradual  assimilation  of  Canaanitish  thought 

lot,  etc. 

and  customs. 

Seers. 

Beginnings  of  tendency  to  centralize  priestly 

activity  in  tribe  of  Levi. 
Jotham's  Fable  (Judg.  9:  7  f.) 

Nazirites. 

Image-worship  common. 
Necromancers ;  witchcraft. 

Patriarchal  traditions. 

Local  sanctuaries  at  Ramah,  Mizpah,  Bethel, 

Gilgal,  and  elsewhere. 
Ark  in  sanctuary  at  Shiloh. 
Eli,  and  his  sons. 
Annual  feast  at  Shiloh. 

c.  1040 

Samuel. 
Prophetic  societies. 

Ark  captured  by  Philistines. 

Ark  restored,  and  kept  at  Kiriath-jearim. 

Ban  executed  upon  the  Amalekites. 

Book  of  Jashar  (Josh.  10:  13  ;  a  Sam.  1 :  18). 

Rejection  of  Saul  by  Samuel. 

Book  of   the  Wars  of  Jehovah  (Numb.  21 : 

14  f.)- 
Slaughter  of  the  priests  of  Nob. 

Anointing  of  David  by  Samuel. 

Gad,  the  seer. 

Abiathar,  the  priest. 

Nathan,  the  prophet. 

David's  lament  over  Saul   and  Jonathan  (2 
Sam.  1 :  19-27.) 

Blessing  of  Jacob  (Gen.  49). 

David's  lament  over  Abner  (2  Sam.  3:  33  ft.) . 

Nathan's  parable  (2  Sam.  12:  1-4). 

c.  960 

Oracles  of  Balaam  (Numb.  23,  24). 

Building  of  the  Temple. 

Song  of  the  Exodus  (Exod.  15,  earliest  form). 

Ancient  Songs;  e.g.,  Lamech's  Song  (Gen. 
4:23!.);     Song  of   the  Well    (Numb,  ax: 

i7f.)- 
Early  Proverbs;   e.  g.,  1  Sam.  10:111.:  24: 

'3- 
Popular  Riddles;   e.  g.,  Judg.  14:14-18;  15: 

16. 
Ancient  Laws ;  e.  g.,  1  Sam.  30 :  24  f . 

933 

Ahijah  (1  Kings  n  :  29). 

Shemaiah  (1  Kings  12:22 f.). 

Golden  Calves. 
Development  of  temple  ritual. 

Hero-stories  in  Judges. 

Nazirites. 

Nebhi'im. 

State  Annals. 
Tyrian  Baalism. 

875-850 

Elijah. 

Early  world- stories. 

Judean  Decalogue. 

Micaiah  ben  Imlah. 

Gradual   development  of   Hebrew   civil   and 
religious  law,  later  codified  in  Deuteronomy 
and  in  the  Holiness  Code. 

850-800 

Elisha. 

Early  Saul  and  David  stories. 

850-750 

J1-                                                ,     • 

842 

Prophets  support  Jehu  s  revolution. 
Rise  of  Rechabites. 

836 

Book  of  the  Covenant. 

Priests  under  Jehoiada  overthrow  Athaliah. 
Joash  repairs  the  temple. 

800-750 

Elijah  stories. 

Ei. 

Early  narratives  in  Samuel  and  Kings. 

Parable  of  Jehoash  (2  Kings  14:  9). 

Elisha  stories. 

783 

Prophet  Jonah  (2  Kings  14:  25). 
Isaiah  15  and  16  (  ?). 

Blessing  of  Moses  (Deut.  33). 

Ephraimite  Decalogue. 

765-750 

Amos. 

745-735 

Hosea. 
E2. 

739 

Isaiah. 

Jotham  repairs  the  temple. 

734 

Ahaz     introduces    Assyrian     element's     into 
temple  ritual. 

721 

Micah. 

128 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


APPENDIX  C. 


PROPHETIC    VOCABULARY. 


The  following  list  of  words  aims  to  include  the  more  important 
terms  used  by  the  prophets  to  convey  their  distinctive  ideas.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  an  exhaustive  vocabulary  of  the  prophetic  utterances,  but 
confines  itself  to  the  favorite,  or  characteristic,  words  of  the  prophets. 
The  list  of  Greek  equivalents  gives  the  most  common  renderings  of 
the  Septuagint  translation  of  the  prophets,  without  attempting  to 
enumerate  all  the  rare  interpretations.  Renderings  based  upon  a  mis- 
taken reading  or  a  different  text  from  that  of  the  Massoretes  are  pur- 
posely omitted. 


"13X  awoWietv,  O-oXeOpetieiv,  iic- 
rplfleiv  (Deut.  7:20), 
ixXelireiv  (Jer.  7:28) 


perish,  be  exterminated 


TffiMS 

vivt]%,  7rru)x6s,  Taireivbs 

poor,  needy 

bi» 

irevdetv,  crrevd^eiv  (Isa.  19:8), 
dprjvetv  (Ezra  7: 12) 

mourn,  lament 

nns 

(LvOpwTros 

man,  mankind 

nn? 

dyairav,  <pi\eiv 

love 

nnnx 

dydTTijcris 

love 

rnx 

hriffv/uiv 

desire 

rn» 

a-qp-eiov 

sign 

T» 

di'o/.a'a,     ddiicla,     70771/07x65 
(Isa.   58:9),   tidrcuos,  fid- 
Ti)v,  (3\da<pT)p.os(ls&.  66:3), 
7^05,  k6ttos,  (Ltottos 

trouble,  wickedness 

bif 

" 

Spvs,       repifiivOos,      MvSpop 

-  terebinth 

dacrv,  yeveal  (Isa.  61:3) 

f&* 

n?1?^ 

Xtpa. 

widow 

Ytqk 

a\-q6t.v6s 

faithfulness,  truth 

hjtok 

dX-qdeia,      d\rj0tv6s,      irlcms, 

faithfulness,  steadfastn 

7Tio"T<5s,  d^idiriffTos 

■yqs 

\tyeiv,  eiireiv,  ipetv,  \a\eiv 

utter,  say 

OS 

6vp.6s,  6pyfi 

anger 

nbss 

yi>6<pos,  ctk6tos 

darkness,  calamity 

toSss 

\ap.fidveiv     yvvaiKa,     p.vt\a- 
Oetiecrdai  yvvaiKa 

betroth 

"W? 

ddereTv,    Karacppoveiv,    iyica.- 

deceive,  deal  treacher- 

rakelireiv, dcrvvdereiv 

ously 

APPENDIXES 


129 


pits 

<pa.v\lfeiv,  drip.dfciv,  aTt/xovv, 
£%ov8evovv,  QovOevovv 

despise 

TT2 

(TKvXi^eiv,    8tapTrd£eii>,     irpo- 
vop.ev€LV,  diacTKopwlfeiv 

spoil,  plunder 

nnn 

inX^yeiv,     diriX^yeiv,     aipetv, 
aipeTifetv,  8oKip.dfeiv,  npo- 
aipelv 

choose 

nt?3 

TTfldetv,  £\Trl£eii> 

trust 

nun 

dprivri,     i\wls,     Treideiv,    d<r- 
<pa\Qs 

security 

r? 

crvverSs,      (Tvvleiv,      avvUvai, 
<ppbvLp.os    elvai,    Karavbav, 
£iriOTr)p.wv 

perceive 

fc*P 

Trapdpop.0^,     \oip.6s,     dcrefiris, 
dvofxla,  dv6p.r]ixa 

worthlessness 

npa 

inj/r]\6v(inj/ri\ri),  j3ap.d,  dj3a./xd 
(Ezek.      20:29),     (3w/*6s, 
<TTq\t),    ij-fios    (lovvSs    (Ps. 
78  158;   I   Kings   10:13), 
el8w\oi>  (Ezek.  16:  16) 

high-place 

by? 

/3aaX,     aicrxvvr)     (1     Kings 
18:19,  25),  d8u\op   (Jer. 
9:14) 

Baal 

*l?3 

iKKaieiv,    iKKOido.ipfiv,    dcpavi- 
£eiv,  tfiTTvpifciv 

consume 

Op.3 

^■qretv,  iK$r]Teiv 

seek,  enquire 

rrna 

diadriKT),  fxaprtjpiov,  ivro\-q 

covenant 

n'fa 

eva.yye\l£effdcu 

preach,  announce  good 
news 

n©3 

aiaxvv-q 

shame 

nbina 

irapdivoi,  vip.<pt\ 

virgin 

"f»i 

vrreprj^avta,  <pptjayp.a,  vfipis, 

majesty,  pride 

86*0. 
5Sp        Xvrpovv,  ay  xi&Teveiv.pvecrOat., 
diroKvTpovv,  i^aipeiv 
71513 )     dTTOLK€<ria,     dwoiKla,     fieroi- 
n^bil )  Keiria,   ai'xMciXuxTitt 

"'13        edvos,  Xa6s 

J*1!!  dyaWiaaQat,  xcupetV,  ev- 
(ppaiveiv 
n*3  diroKakvirreiv,  dvaKaXinrTeiv, 
inroKa\virT€Lv,iKKa.\inrTeii>, 
dvoiyeiv,  (pavepovv,  cti'x- 
/xaXwWfetj',  alx^d^Kwrov 
yevtadat,  aTroudfav,  dird- 
yeiv,  dtpltrravai 


redeem,  act  as  kinsman 

exiles,  exile 

nation,  people 
rejoice 

uncover,  go  into  exile 


130 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


D^ba 


-ira 


*G1 


trrn 


■pTxn 


nsn 

"Tins  !fbn 
TO 


Xi/7,uaTa,    SiafOTj/aara,    ^p- 

tt7reiXetV,  aTreikrj,  dirovKO- 
paicifeiv,  £wlti!j.8,v,  <ni\- 
Xoidopew 

(rvvTaucreiv,  inroTacriretv,  iv- 
rfWco-dai,  di'ayy^Weiv, 
(rvWaKetv,  TrpocrXaXe'iv, 
pteiv,  elirelv,  XaXetV,  Xtyew 

X67OS,  €7T0S,  pTjp.0. 

ddvaros,  b~iKri 

yivea,,  eKyovov,  cvyytvtLa 

Kpiveiv,  SiaKpiveiv 

do~6evr)'i,   Trivrj's,  tttuxos,  to- 

tt€lvos 
yvQ>o~is,  eirL<TTrjp.T),  e-rriyvucris, 

fiovkr)  (Isa.  44:25),  o~vve- 

<ra 

iT&fav  (Deut.  13:15), 
dTTOKplvecrdai,  irvvOdvecrdai 
(Gen.  25:22),  iwepwrdv, 
iTTLCKitrTeadai  (Ezek. 
20:40),  iiri<TKOTre?v  (Deut. 
11:12),       iXirl^eiv       (Isa. 

11: 10),      xpy°~ixo^-bye<-v 

(Jer.  38:4) 
ivurl^eadaL 
p-draios,   p.arai6TT]s,  etdojXov, 

p.drr)v,     eh     ovSev      (Isa. 

49:4) 
u<peXuv,  wcpfXeia,  u<p4Xrjp.a 

dvatrwfeiv,  Statraifetv 
Ka\bv  Troielv,  a7a#i;j'ei»',   dpt- 
aiceiv,     (itXriov    ttouiv,   e5 

WOLiiV 

TraTd(TO~eii>,  rvTrreiv,  ndirreiv, 
KOLTaKoirreiv,  €kk6ttt€iv, 
TraUiv,  ir\r)a<reiv 

Trapopylfeiv,  TrapaTTLKpaiveiv, 
trapo^vvuv 

TropeiJe<r()ai  ovicruj 

o~Tp£<peiv,  dva(TTp^<peiv,  diro- 
o~Tpt(peiv,  in<TTpe<peiv,  /xera- 
o~Tpf<t>eiv,  aXXdcveiv 


idols 


rebuke 


speak 


word,  utterance 

pestilence 

generation 

judge 

weak,  poor 

knowledge 


seek,  consult 


hear,  listen 
vanity  (=  idols) 


avail,  profit 
deliver,  save 

do  good  to,  deal  well  with 


smite,  destroy 


vex,  provoke  to  anger 

walk  after 
turn 


APPENDIXES 


131 


:nn 

onn 

"in 

rnnmJn 

nnt 

nnr 
-t 

D'ar 


nnr 


n:T 


D7T 


D37T 


"b*ri 


i^aipeiv,      pveadai,      eKcrirav, 
crwfietv 

(Isa.  14:19),  KaTa<r<£dfete 
(Zech.  II  :  5),  flawroOi', 
airoKtvTeiv  (Ezek.  21: 16) 

KaTa<TKdTTT€lV,  KCLTCUTTpicpeiV, 

pr/yvtivai.  (Ezra  38  :  20) 
6pos,  6peiv6s 
TTpocrKweiv,        KaTa<pt.\e?v 

(1   Kings  2  :I9) 
duetv,       dv&idfeiv,        dv/xiav, 

6vp.id£eiv,    <T(pafeiv,    irpoa- 

<pipeiv  (Deut.   17:1) 
Qv<rla,  dvcrlacr/xa,  6vp.a,  0v/xl- 

ap.a,  <r<pdyiov  (Am.  5:25) 
inrepr)<pavos 
fjup.vrj<rK€<rdai,  avau.ip.vrja'Ket.v, 

fivrj/jioveveiv,  ovofid^eiv 
SiavoeicrOai,  TrovTjpeveirdat 

(Deut.    19:19),   eTriT Idyiixi. 

(Gen.   II:  6),  XaXeZV  (Jer. 

4:28;   51:12),  4 vOv fitter Oai 

(Lam.  2:17),  irapa.Td<T<retv 

(Zech.    1:6),     iraparripdv 
>  (Ps.  37:12) 
dcripeLa,  dvofxla,  fifia  (Judg. 

20:6),  &p.p.a(  Ezek.  24:13), 

avhaia 
iropvefccv,  iKiropvetieiv 
dirwdetv,    airoaTpt'cfreiv  (Hos. 

8:3),     air  or  pipe  iv     (Hos. 

8:5) 
opyrjv   iirdyeiv,   vapaTdcraeiv 

(Mai.      I  :4),       inrepeldeiv 

(Zech.   1:12),  dvfxovffdai 
opyr),    direiXr]   (Hab.  3:12), 

e/x/3 pi  ixi)  /xa     (Lam.    2:6), 

iriKpla  (Jer.  15  :  17),  airai- 

deva-la  (Hos.  7:16) 
=  6^X6^(1X05  (Isa.  13:5) 
dt.a<rKopTrl£eii>,         aKopirl^eiv, 

diaawelpeiv,  Xac/xdv 
otrelpeiv,  Ka.Ta<Twelpeiv,<nropd, 

awbpos 
Ppaxlwv 
ffaKeveiv,       wdlveiv,       ciStVas 

eX*"',      ir6veiv,     apdeveiv, 

oSwaadcu 


snatch  away,  rescue 
slay,  destroy 

throw  down,  break  down 

mountain,  hill 

bow  down,  do  obeisance 

to  sacrifice 

sacrifice 

insolent,  scornful 
remember 

purpose,  devise 


plan,  wickedness 

commit  fornication 
reject,  spurn 

be  indignant 

indignation 

scatter,  disperse 


arm,  strength 
whirl,  writhe 


132 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


nrn 
'  rfltij 

atpn 


nbn 

Dibn 

cpn 

■pan 
non 

ysn 
ph; 

™? 
nsnn  \ 

inn 


6/>ai<,  owreadai,  Ideiv,  OewpeTv 

bp&v 

Spacns,     opa/jia.      Trpcxprjrela, 

vwvos 

6pap.a,  Bewprirds,  prjfia,  i\irls, 

6pap.a,  tipaffis 

afAaprdveiv,  i^apLaprdveiv,  d5i- 

Keiv,  i(f>ap.apTdveiv 
a/jLaprla,  dvofiia 
dfjiaprla,   ap.dprr]p.a,    dvop.la, 

dv6fj.7]/j.a,    daij3eia    (Ezek. 

33  :  14),    d<xi^y]p.a    (Lam. 

4  :  22),  KaKla  (Jer.  15  :  13), 

Kapdla  (Ps.  32  :  5),  p-drcuos 

(1  Kings  16  :2) 
oi  a,uapTO}\oi,  oi  a.p.apTdvwv- 

Tes,  oi  dvopoi,  oi  aaefieh 
/jualveiv,  f3ef3ri\ovv 
4vvirvid£e<r0ai,  ivrjirvLov  tdeiv, 

ivtiirviov  bpdv 
evinrviov,  virvos 
(pelSecrdai,    £\ieiv,   tirnrodelv, 

aiperl^ecv  (Mai.  3:17) 
dcripeia,   aduda,   &8ikos,  ade- 

ala  (Jer.  20  :8),  avop.la 
olKTtipnv,  i\4eiv,  KaraffTevd- 

friv  (Jer.  22:23) 
Pkeijixuv,  oiKrlpfioiv 
eXeos,  SiKaioo-vvr]  (Isa.  63  :7), 

oiKTdprina  (Jer.  31  :  3) 
fiov'kecrda.i,  ev8oKe?v,  iiudvp.uv, 

64\etv,  (HovXevtadai 
6i\rip.a,     deXrjrbs,      ^k\ckt6s 

(Isa.  54  :  12),  j3o6\eo-9ai 
rb  v6p.1p.ov,  irpbo-rayp-a,  8iKal- 

(vp.a 
ipT]p.ovv,  <iprip,os 
ipr)p.uxns,  cprjp,os,  cp7)p.la,  |t;- 

paffla,  Kavp.a 
p.dxo-1-pa,       pop.<pcua,      i-lcpos, 

iyxeiptdiov 
i^icrdvai,   rptp.eiv,  £K<po(5eiv, 

airocrofielv      (Jer.      7:33)> 

diioneiv 


pity,  have  compassion 
behold,  see  a  vision 


seer 
vision 

night-vision 
vision 

vision 
sin 

to  sin 
sin 


profane,  defile 
dream 

dream 

spare,  have  compassion 

violence,  wrong 

be  gracious,  shew  favor 

gracious 

goodness,  kindness,  piety 

delight  in 

pleasure,  delight 

statute 

be  waste,  desolate 

waste,  desolation 

sword 

tremble,  be  terrified 


APPENDIXES 


133 


mil       6pyi£eo-dai,  dvpovcrOai,  rrapo- 
{■vveiv 

dpytf,  0v/jl6s 

6vei8os,  6f€t5io>i6s,  aiffx^v-q 

irroeiv,  (pofidaOou,  vapaXveiv 

(Isa.     27  :  36),      iKXeLireiv 

(Isa.  7:8) 
apirafciv,  dtjperjeii>  (Jer.  5;6) 
p-oxOeiv,  KOiriav 
eiSeiv,yiyvd}a,Keip,iTTL(TTd<T$ai 
Kijpios  aafiawd,  nvpios  ttolvto- 

Kparwp,    6    KVplOS    6    01710s 

(Isa.  14:27) 
ripApa  Kvplov,i)pipa.  rod  Kvpiov 
iratdeveiv,  vovdereiv,  aireidetv 
ir\d<T(T€iv,  KaracrKevd^eiv,  ktL- 

£eiv,  x^veveiv 
<pof3eT<T0cu,  atfieadai 
<p6f3os,  euo~e'(3eia 

(TWTTJpia,   aWTTjp 

ooiriipiov,  (rwTrjpla 

evdvs,  evOvveiv,  ev8oiceiv  (Hab. 

2:4),    KCLTOpOoVV,    dp4<TK€lV 

evdvs,  6p66s 
6p<pav6s,  7ttwx<5s 
56£a,  TLp.7) 

\j/evSos,  (ca/c/a,  p-draios 
cvvriKeiv,  iraveiv 
(Tvvr^Xeia,  (rvvriXeia    Kaipov, 
avvrehtiv 
nbDb        =  els  tAos 
D?3       aTip.d$eiv,    a.Tip.ov<rdcu,    ko.t- 
aurx^veiv,    Kara\a\eiv, 
kl-a.Tip.ovv,  aio-x^veo-dai 
rTBbS       dripla,     6veid«rp.6s,     6vei8os, 
aliTxvvTi    (Isa.  50  : 6)>  &&- 
cavoy 
XD3       6p6vos,  U<ppos 
073      Qvpbs,  6pyrf 
n"H3  n*13       dtadiJKTiv  oiaridi'va.i,  Sta^i/'xTjv 
rtdivai 
5TD3       dadevetv,    KOiriav,    ddvvareiv 
(Isa.  8  :  13),  dw^cu  (Isa. 
3:8),      irapaKieiv       (Isa. 
35:3),  irXo»'a«'  (Jer.  31:9), 
KaravaKto-Kfiv  (Isa.  59 :  14) 


be  angry 


-  anger 


ontp 


rnrn  dt> 

IS"! 

rmtn 
'*& 

onrn 
Ttas 

nb3 
nbs 


reproach 

be  shattered,  dismayed 


tear,  seize 

be  afflicted,  distressed 
know,  perceive 
Jehovah  of  Hosts 


day  of  Jehovah 
discipline,  chasten 
form,  fashion 

to  fear,  reverence 
fear,  reverence,  piety 
salvation,  deliverance 
deliverance,  safety 
be  upright 

right,  just 
orphan 
glory 

lie,  falsehood 
cause  to  cease,  consume 
total  destruction,  annihi- 
lation 

insult,  reproach,  torment, 
revile 

insult,  reproach 


throne 

vexation,  anger 

cut,  or  make,  a  covenant 

stumble,  stagger 


134 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


Kapoia,  ipvxv,  iiriOvfila,  8ia- 
vola,  vovs 

r  heart,  mind,  will 

Tab 

fj.avdd.veiv,     SiSdcriceiv,      8ei.K- 
vvvai,  diSaxv 

learn,  teach 

OXtt 

awwdelv,  diroSoKLfid^eiv,  i^ov- 
Sevecv,  ii-ovSevovv 

reject 

rrairra 

T 

66pv(3os,    airuiXeLa,    rdpaxos, 
rapaxv,  "'<0'Xl"r'si    '^ffra- 
<ris,  iK\ip.la,  Oav/j-acrTos 

tumult,  confusion 

rogrra 

KOLTCHTTptcptlV 

overthrow 

-Hjra 

iraidela 

discipline,  correction 

rrara 

irapa.voiJ.la    (Ps.    37:7)>    ^'a* 
PovXiov    (Ps.   10:2),    ivih- 
wiov     (Ps.     10:4),   fiovXri 
(Ps.    21:12),    5ia\oyicr/J.6v 
(Ps.    139:20),    f38i\vyfj.a 
(Jer.     11:15),     iyxelPVtJ-a 
(Jer.  23:20;  30:24),  6pyy 
(Jer.  51  :n) 

purpose,  device 

nrn'o 

Spa^ia 

vision 

bitb'i? 

(TK&v8a\ov,  irrdfia,  dadiveia, 

occasion  of  stumbling, 

pdvavos,  K6\a<xis 

stumbling-block 

taba 

ffdifreiv,  avaawfriv,  Siavuifriv, 
i^aipeiv 

preserve,  escape 

"tBDT2 

K0Trer6s 

wailing 

riJn 

tcrxvs,  @qt)06s,  o-ksttij,  (3or)6eia 

stronghold,  refuge,  for 
tress 

nte?1? 

epyov,  irolrjua,  Trolricris 

work,  deed 

rajhg 

T     ■■      - 

o-T-qXi),  crrOXos  (Jer.  43  :  13), 

pillow,  massebah 

mwa 


nspE 
n-na 


npp 


vTr6<XTa<ris  (Ezek.  26:11), 
dr)K7)  (Isa.  6:13) 

ivr6\y,  evra\p.a,  irp6<TTayfj.a, 
SiKaiufxa  (1  Kings  2:3), 
Kplo-is  (Deut.  1 1:1),  <poovrj 
(Deut.  28:9,  13) 

6pao~is,  8pap.a,  8\pts,  owrao-la, 
etSos 

avOio-rdvai  (Hos.  14:1),  d/j.e- 
\e?v  (Jer.  4:17),  direideTv, 
TrapaniKpalveiv,  dwwOeiv 
(Ezek.  5:6),  /iijSe  eltra- 
Koveiv  (Isa.  1: 20),  dcpiord- 
vai  (Ezek.  20  :  S) 

Spacris,  prjp-a,  opa/xa,  \rj/x/j.a 

d\d<peiv,  xP^eiv<  Scaxpleiv, 
Xptcr6s 

Xpurrds 


commandment 


be  rebellious,  obstinate 


utterance,  oracle,  burden 
anoint 

anointed,  Messiah 


APPENDIXES 


135 


DSD 

TWS 

&P33 
yo 

nn? 
yea 

nt2D 


T3 
Dp? 

DpT2 

nana. 

ens 


Kplfia,    Kplffis,    oiKaiufMa,    di- 

Katocvvrj,  iic5lKri<ns 
Xiyeiv,  <j>dvai 
■marbs  eivai,  iriGTeve iv,  irlariv 

i'xeiv,  iriffTodv 

TTtards,   d£l67TlCTTOS 

Hoixevav,  fJ.oixo.o6ai,  ixolx^Io., 
fMOixfc,  p.oixaXls 

TTpO<p7]T€VeiV 

Trpofpijrris,  \f/evdoTrpo<pi]Tr)s 
craXevetv,    creleiv,    i^io-Taadai, 
cvvadpolfeiv,  \iKfj.av,  Ki.veiv 
TrapaKakeTv,  fxeravoeiv,  iXteiv 

Itrr&vai,  (pvreveiv,  Ka.Ta.cpv- 
reveiv 

crraXd^eiv,  dwocrraXd^iv,  iwi- 
fiXt'ireiv  (Ezek.  21  :  2,  7), 
Sdicpvcri  tcXaleiv  (Mic.  2  :  6) 

d#<J3os,  dvalnos 

induce??,  ddyovv 


nbo 


-isd 
■no 


n2? 
-or 


judgment,  ordinance, 

justice 
utterance,  oracle 
be  faithful 

faithful 
commit  adultery 

prophecy 

prophet,  spokesman 
shake,  quiver 

be  sorry  for,  have  com- 
passion on 
place,  set  up 

drop,  discourse,  prophesy 


clean,  exempt,  innocent 
avenge,  take  vengeance 


iKdlKTjins,  Siktj,  avTair65ocris       [  vengeance 


6irT€o-dai 

itcrlXXeiv,  iKpifavvQer.  1:10), 
iKcrwdv  (Am.  9:15),  diro- 
ffirav  (Jer.  12:14),  in- 
k6ttt€lv  (Mic.  5:13),  i^al- 
peiv  (Jer.  12: 17;   18  :7) 

'IXews  ylveaQai,  'IXeut  eivai, 
IXda Kecrdai,  eviXareveiv, 
acpUvai 

Kdwreiv 

direidetv,  irapoiffTpav  (Hos. 
4:16),  irapacppovetv  (Zech. 

7H  i),   aVTJKOOS,     dTTOO~TdT7)S 

(Isa.  30:1) 
dovXevetv,     Xarpeveiv,     icara- 

dovXovu 
SoiXos,  dovXri,  SovXeicjv 
Trapafialveiv,  irapipxeo-Bai,  iy- 

KaraXelneiv,        irapairopev'- 

ecrdat 
Ovfibs,  6pyij,  Upp/qp-a 

jix6(rxoj,  no<rx&PiOVi  Sdp.aXis, 
(3ot8iov  (Jer.  50  :  II ) 


appear  (of  God) 
pull  up,  root  out 


pardon,  forgive 


wail,  lament 

be  stubborn,  rebellious 


serve,  worship 

servant,  worshipper 
transgress 


fury,  arrogance 
calf  (idol  set  up  by  Jero- 
boam) 


136 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


T¥ 


TO 


tnbbra 

ptD7 


nns 

bos 

nps 

yes 

y©D 


dSLKta,      ablxTfUa,      a/napria, 
afj.dpTT]fj.a       (Isa.      59:2), 
dvofxia,      dvofxriixa,      Kaicta 
(Jer.  13:22;   16:18),  diri- 
/3eta  (Ezek.  33  :  9) 
i^eyeipeiv,  iyelpeiv,  tireyeipeiv 
tyKarakelweiv,  KaraKilireiv 
dvop.ia,  ddiKla,  irapdirTwixa. 
aluv,  aidovios,  81'   alQvos,  els 
tov     alQiva,    81a.     iravr6s, 
divvaos 

iiTLTrj8evp.aTa,  epya 

Xa6s,  edvos,  yivos 

diroKpiveffdai,  viraKoveiv 

raireivovv,  kukovv 

iTTUxbs,       trevris,      rcnreivds, 

Trpavs 
Tairelvw<jis,KdKW(Ti'i,irT<j)xela., 

irtvLa,  68vvr),  8\l\pis 
d8iK€tv,    d\lj3fii',   KaraSwaff- 

reveiv 
"\vTpouv,  pveadai  (Isa.  50  '  2), 

avvdyeiv      (Isa.     35  :  10), 

aibfav  (Isa.  I  :  27) 
<pofi€?<r6ai.,  8ei\iav,  i^aTaadai 
06/3os,  eKffTacris,  Tp6p.os 
yXvirrbv,       et8o\ov,       tlKuiv, 

8.ya\p.a.,         wepifiuifiiov, 

y\vp-/xa 
imiXKiirTtLV,  iicSiKeiv 
daefielv,       ddereiv,      dvop.elv, 

d<pi<TTdva,i 
dirifieia,  dvop.la,  irapdirrup-a, 

a/iaprla  (Isa.  53  :  5),  dp.dp- 

rtiixa    (Isa.   58:1;    Lam. 

1:22),       dSiicla.      (Ezek. 

18  =22) 


8iKaio<rvvrj 

dlnaios,  evo-epijs  (Isa.  24  :  16; 
26:7) 

TV2X 

dvaroXri 

"12 

ixfyh 

m 

<rvvdyeiv,  <rvva6polfeiv,  ddpol- 

guilt,  iniquity 


arouse,  awake 
leave,  forsake 
injustice,  unrighteousness 
long  duration,  antiquity, 
futurity 

deeds,  designs,  evil  doings 

people,  nation 

answer,  respond 

be  bowed  down,  afflicted 

poor,  afflicted,  meek 
affliction,  poverty 

oppress,  extort 

ransom,  redeem 


be  in  awe,  dread 
awe,  dread 

idol,  image 

visit  upon,  punish 
rebel,  transgress 

rebellion,  transgression 


Tightness,  righteousness 
just,  righteous 

branch,  or  sprout  (in  Mes- 
sianic sense) 
adversary,  enemy 
gather,  collect 


feiv,  iirnrvvdyeiv 


APPENDIXES 


137 


trip 

t5*nR 

n?P 


nrp 

ns:p 

KIR 

to 

in 

ay] 
rcpi 


run 

yen 

bis© 

rvnsE 


QdnTTeLV,    KCLTOplHTffeiV 

crytos,      ayiaa/ia,      dytd^eiv, 

dyiocruvT) 
ayLos,  Kadapos,  yyiaff/x^vos 
iXirifav,  irddeiv  (Isa.  33  :2), 
ireiroidws  elvai  (Isa.  8  :I7), 
ixtveiv,  vwofxiveiv,  dva/xtveiv 
(Isa.  59:11),  avvdyecrdai 
(Jer.  8:15) 

fi/Xos 

KaKeiv,  Kpdfeiv,  (3oav,  KTjpixr- 

creiv 
biappr)yvvvai,        8iapprj<T<Tet.i>, 

prjyvvvai,  trx^fe"' 
dva.Tra.veiv,    Kotrdf'etrflcu,    koi- 

ixa.ada.1,  KaraXfatv,  ve'p.eiv 
7rvevfj.a.  T7V07] 
dac&i'eiv,     Kpheiv,     XoiSopeiv, 

p.dxe$9ai 
8tK&£eiv,   StaSiKd^eiv,    inrepbi- 

icdfeiv 

\ip.bs 

TTOi/xdveiv,  (Hbaneiv,  vt/xeiv, 
rptcpeiv,  iroip-riv,  7toi/xtj^ik6s 

KaKovv,  Trovrjpeuto'dat.,  KO.KOV, 
Katcta,  irovripbs  ylyveadai, 
TrovTjpbs  eivai 

TTOvrjpia,       Kaicla,       TTOVTjpbs, 

KdKOS 

kok6s,  Trovrjpbs,  Kania,  aiaxpbs 
KaKia,  TTOv-qpla,  KaKovv,  vovrj- 

p6s,  alcrxpos 
ea.a'dai,     iarpeveiv,      fivejOcu, 

iarpbs 
dvo,ata,        &vop.os,        d<r^/3eia, 

d<re/3ijs 
&V0/J.0S,  a.fxapTu>\6s,  d<re/3i7S 
dctfieiv,  dffef3r)s 
ixiaeiv 

q.orjs,  Odvaros  (Isa.  28  :  15) 
/c<XT(£\oi7ro$,  KaTdXeip-fia,  \oi- 

7r6s 
KardXonros,  KardXeifxpLa,  Xot- 

vbs,    vTrb\eip./j.a.,     iyKard- 


bury 

sanctity,  holiness 

sacred,  holy 

wait  for,  expect,  hope  for 


elegy,  dirge 

ardor,  zeal,  jealousy 

call,  proclaim 

rend, tear 

lie  down,  rest,  crouch 

spirit,  breath 
strive,  plead 

strife,  dispute 

famine 

be  shepherd,  pasture, 

nourish 
be  evil,  bad 


misery,  evil,  distress 

bad,  evil 
badness,  evil 

heal,  save 


wickedness 

wicked,  criminal 

be  wicked,  act  wickedly 

hate 

Sheol 
remnant 

remnant 


138 


PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 


!"QTU       ai'x/icaXajTetfeie,  fieTayeiv,  alx- 


carry  captive 


mmp~ 

" 

■n-£J 

alx/J-o.\w(ria.alx^d\uTot!Trpo- 

vop.rj,  d.TTOO'TpO<pT?l 

■  captivity 

rpnv 

nnis 

avvrplfteiv 

break,  destroy,  devast. 

*QE 

avvTpifiri,      avvTpip.p.0.,     o~vv- 
Tpt,p./ji6s 

breaking,  destruction 

TTTp 

6\\6vai,     f!;o\eOpeveiv,      6Xe- 
dpetieiv,  6\e6po$,  diroWivai, 
raKanrupcTv,  TaXanroipia 

devastate 

"ITS 

<rvvTpifj./j.a,    <TWTpiixp.bs,    6\e- 
6pos,  Takaurivpia 

devastation 

ff# 

p.ara.Lbrr)%,    /udrcuos,    /j.dT7]v, 
\J/ev5rfs,  Kev6s 

vanity,  lie,  evil 

aw 

iTriarpicpeiv,         diro<TTpt4>eiv, 
ava.<Trpe<t>eiP,     inro<TTp4<peiv 

turn,  return 

n?b 

iwi\avddv«Tdai 

forget 

DttW 

ip7]p,ovcrdai,  dtfxxvLfodcu,  il-i- 
<TT&ffdai,  dav/ji.dfc<T6a.i 

be  amazed,  desolated 

rra^'tt: 

a<pavi<7p.6s,  d7rtiXeta,  6\f6pos, 

desolation,  waste 

I2S© 

Kpiveiv,    diaKplveiv,     dacafciv, 
iKdiKeiv,  Kpirrjs,  StKcwnJs 

judge 

ppt? 

P8i\vy/J.a,  irpocbx&^P-o- 

abomination,  idol 

1p.E 

\peudos,  ij/evdris 

lie,  deceit 

rnxn 

iwi.dvp.la. 

desire 

nwan 

ffvveffis,  <pp6vi)o~is 

understanding 

rarun 

(3di\vyp.a,  dvopta 

abomination 

nnin 

VOfXOS,  ivTOhi),  TO   vSfJLlfWV 

direction,  instruction 

nann 

eXeos,  Shirts,  irpo<revxv 

favor,  request  for  favoi 

nyn 

TrXavacrdai 

go  astray,  err 

rnjjfl 

(\irls,  etieXwis,  viropovq 

hope 

npiijn 

<TUT7]pia,  owT-qpiov,  porjdeia 

deliverance,  salvation 

APPENDIXES  139 

APPENDIX  D. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  HEXATEUCH.1 

r  Traces  of  editorial  revision.  '  In  J  or  E  lines — RJe,  in  P  line — Kp. 

0  Supplements  from  writers  of  the  same  school.      "  In  J  or  E  lines — Rd. 
A  period  after  a  figure  indicates  the  following  verse  ;  e.  g.,  25.  =  25-26. 

J^r^n^cic    t         1      4&~°      I5~25    ->1-21  23        A1  2b        l6t"24     c       29         (-1 
Js  VJCllCMb    1  Z  10-14  3         22   24     4  2a  3-160         25.   3  u 


5-8 
1-28  30-32      9-22 


Jg  _  Q  _  20-27 

Js  / 1-5  7-ior  12     166  176   22. r   °   6a  26-30  66-12  136   20-22  V   180  '6  19 


11  13-160  17a  18-21  24    1-20     36-5   13*  14-19 


Jg  [n  T  ,1-9       28-30  1-40    6-8  °9  -  -1  2  566-na 

Js  1U  iJ    8-19  21    24-30  '  '  *■  ^  10-20       1o        "3- 

P  w  2-7     20  22.         31.  10-27       31.  S  46  6a  116-120 

Jg  .,  -126-13        18    T    .  J        r     3.  6  7a    6  8-11     12-15   17-iSa    b  s    16-2  4-8  11-14 

Js  IJ  14-17      A4  El3i.rs  16  "10-21    iu  9. 

P  '1-24  P  ia       3  15. 


J    T  -  01-16  "17-19  20-220  "226-330  336  1-2830-38     „_         18  1020       7 

Ely  10  19  2UI_I7      21  68-27 


16  26-5 


J    0     28-30  33       0~                '15-182006-24                              1-67     or"i-4  5   116  18a  °6  c 

E21          31-34     22i-i3°i4          19                    23           24  25                     '6 

P                                                                                                  1-20  7-110  12-17 

J     _-       21-25026028                       OfV~3<2        6-14  16.  19-33  o_I0  2.  46  56-70          15              186-20 

E  ^j              256    27  29-34       •^t-'       '36-5     15    18  —  /    16  4050      76-14  16-180        21-23 
P          19.             266                                                             34. 

J      _-24-27     29OC  30O    C            3^-34              416-42      436    45a  Q        IO      I3-16    1906             2l6 

E^/          28     296    306  31a        35-410          430    44     456  ^"        11.        17.       20-210  220 '6 

P                                                                                               '46  1-9 

J             2-14              26                        31-35         ^n       36-16  22C-230  24.  27  29-310         34~38a 

E  '■Vi       15-23  25  27-280          30                 j^  1-311       17-20  226           236  26  28           316-33 


J    -n     39-4°ac  41-43         ,,13     '10  126        17-180  25  27         31         43.4648  500 '6 

E  0U386  406  O  l   2  4-9   11-120    13-16  19-24  26  28-30  32-42  45  47  '49       5i-55r 


J    ~  ~   3-7a  136-220  236  24-29  31-320  '6     .,.51-17  ~.        26-30  c       5  7 

E  O      !•      76-12   130  230  226  23c       30  OO        180   18C-20     j4 

P  l86  I-20  '36 '4 '6 '8-10 

J    -.11         19  26  296-31        __.  1416-220  f- 

e34  3 5 1-4    66-8  30 

P  12-18  '20-25  27-290  '5  60     9-120 '6  13a '6  15         226-29  ia   6-50  56-8 

'This  analysis  is  reproduced  from  Carpenter  and  Battersby,  The  Hexateuch 
(1900),  Vol.  I,  pp.  272-79.  For  a  tabular  presentation  of  the  analyses  of  other 
scholars,  e.  g.,  Wellhausen  and  Cornill  — see  charts  1-14  at  the  end  of  Holzinger's 
Einleitung  in  den  Hexateuch  (1893).  For  further  literature  on  Hexateuchal  criticism, 
see  pp.  93.96. 


140  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

APPENDIX  D— Continued. 

J    nr  32-39  -,  »y  26   2<i-4      12-130  146  186   21  256-27    286 

EjO  O/  5-11         136-140     15-170  176-180  19.22-250         280 

P  '9-28  29.  '31       40-43  1-20 c 

J    -~  320  336  35  <?QI_3o      onI_4a  4C-5  66  76-23        -n(i   3  5   15)/-        .       14631  34 

E  O/28C-31  326-330    3436      J°  OV        46      60C70  4'-'i-23  4  x  1-30  32. 


J    A1      356     366       4i-4S<i  46649       56057  24.70  c  27-280  38 

E41350C36o  37-40  47- 5o-55  566  4^13  6     8  9a  76  96-26         29-35  286  36. 

P  456-460 

J     ,-,1-13   15-34      A  A  i-34     ac1"        264-50.:       9-11   13.     1906-210  28     A{.™r 

E43        I4  44  45    1J-20  3         560^-8     12   15-18  2167-27       4°    2-4  16  5a '6 


J   (i              28-34      /i*71-4   6*   12-270    29-31  .0   26      96-100    13-19 

e  40                          4/  4°  1-20       8-90       106-12     20-22 

P          6.  '8-27                                   5-607-11         276-28  3-6 '7 

J           16-240        27             336    cni-»  14       18  21  24.  FvorhiQ    t     68~12  I4<1 

F,4v          '246-26                    ju          15-17  19.22.25.  J— AUUU3   l     7               15-200 

P      10  l8         28'0  6-330  C           12.  1-5      13   I46 


J    206  22         II-23O  ,,2-40  5  7-9O      14  l6-l8  .  I-I2  °I3-l6  19-200   21-23 

£   I      2I         -^i-io  ji        466        96-13    15  19.21.         4  17-  206 


236-25 


J    24-26  29-31   -  3  5-23  f^  ~,  J4  I6-I70  18        21 

E  4         27.  O1.4  u  /  'S         176  206 

P  2-12  '13-30  I-I3  19-200  2l6-22  5-7  I56-I9 


2IO  24.       OI-4    8-150 

23  ° 


T  020-32     0i-7    13  "14-16  17-  236  246  256-290  "6  "3033-         t  nia  lb~2  3r~zl 

EC  V     8-12  '19-21  22-230  24a  250  31-   35r       x  u  I2 


12-130 


J    T«i36   146-151    15C-19       24-29  4-8  TO 

E  A  <->     140  156        20-23  x  x  1-3  A  ^ 

p  '9.  1-13' 14-20  24  28 


210  "216-23   "25-270  276  29-34 
'35- 


J  37-39  t-2   3?  4  °5  6  "7.  10-13  21.  S-  100   11-14 

El*  A  O       36  9        14-16  17-19  A4       7  9a      106       150 

P  '40-42  43-50  '51 *■ 20 1-4  8  g6r 15& 

J  196  206  216         240  25         276  286  30        T  -1  22-250         27     T  s- 

E   14i6o         190  20a  246  '31       l  J '2-18  20.  256  '26       'U     4 

P  166-18  210  21C-23         26-270  280  '29  19  1-3 '5  6. '8 

JxA  -32671c  o   '2-4  7  9-11  n 

E  IO  1/    16-20     4-6768-16       lOir      5.8        12-27      XV 

P  9-140  15  a  6-21  '22-30  31-35  36  ia  20  i 


J    t^         '36-6       H6-13        10    20-22  24.  _0    2       40-0    70    9-       120  170  OJ 

E  IV26-30      7-110         14-17  19         '23  ■^'-'13-40        7a  8      120     13-170     18-26         *  >■  1-36 


J    __  '216-22   '24  0  ,,  '13  I56'i7'i9       '23-250         '27         '316-33 

E  2  2J-2KJ  23  25-31  -^01-90 '6  10-12  14-150     16  18  20-22  256-26  28-310 


J    ..1.9-11  ,f      1T  <>~      7-i4  25-29  - 

E  24  3-8     120613-150  186    ^5     ,5  *      186^^1-6      150  16-24        3o-34  35    JO 

p  .  156-180  1 —      180  156 


1  3-41  b 


APPENDIXES  141 

APPENDIX  D  —  Continued. 

J  '12-23    -  ."-5   '6-9   ioo   '106-13   14  "15.   17-1806   19-23  25-28  n  -     ,0 

e  33 '56-n        34                                                 "24    29-33 '34-  3:>  4U 
p 1—    38 

I  Leviticus  1   27          Numbers  1    10  *™  35nI_rIoa  "^Va 
p 1—    34 1—  28     34 

J  18-240  31-35  16  n  176  186   19  22  27a    28  30. 

E  H  '246-30  l  ^1-15  *■  O  I7c-i8a  c        20-210     23.         266  276  29      33?- 

P  1-1712  216    25-260  32 

J  IC3      896     11-24  31  41-45  TC  t^i  ld  13-140   15 

E  14    16     4  25  396-40  1J  1U       iC2a  12         146 

P  1a     2  5-79010  26-30  32-390  1-41  ia '6      26-7  8-1 1  '16. 

J    TA  27C-31         33a  T  ~      on        30        5       86  19.     216 

£  1U  25     266  276         320        336  34  l  I       ■^■(J     16  14-18  21a  220 

P  18-24  26a  27a  '326      33^35  '36-4041-50  1 —       11  2   36-4  6-80C-13 

J    00  o  T  I_3  ,6_2°         246-25  32  _«         36-51  c-7        11  17- 

E  •^(~'  -^ -1       46-9  116-15       21-240        '26  27-31  "33-35    -^^2-30      56    8-10  12-16  19-21 

P         226-29  4a      10  1 

J    ,,,22-34   35'   36a  37639        on         '22.  28         ^^1-25    0r    16-2   36-4  0f.     7(\ 

E  ^-  366-371   38  40.    -^ .}  1-2 1   24-26    27     29.   ^4  zJio     3d         5         *V    JVJ 

P  6-18         I—       13 

ds  Deuteronomy  iia  '^_2  4-7a  ^  %-io  31-33  34-36  '37- 35^-45  '46      2j_67  s. 

JEP P3 

Ds2IO_I2   I3.     I5   16-19   '20-23  24-37          3 1-7   '8-1 1   12-130     136         16     17   1S-29         4i~4  5-40 
JEP Rp   14- 

Dg  45-49        ri"4  '5  6-33        z:i-3  4-25        „i-26        01-20       n.1~I7        21         26-29 

Ds  4  '44  J  °  /  °  V       18-20  22-25 

JEP    Rp  41-43 

Dg  T  ^  10-22  1-32  13-15  17-19  '20-27  28-32  - 1-18      .   .        3 

Ds    lU^j     8.  X1  1*1-1  '8-12        16  •  j  x4i   '24-210 

JEP  E  6. 

Dg  216-29  -1-37-23         /-i.   '3.5-79-22  „i     8-i6a     1720      .01-22  1-7  10-21 

Ds    I4  T5     4-6  I0  8  1  7  2-7        166   18.        lO  19      8. 

JEP 


Dg  ,,,-1-20     5-20  1-4 '6-9   10-23     00i-3o     _-°i-i2   15-25  1-7   '8.   10-15  '16    17-22 

Ds    20       2&-4  2  1         s  2  2  23  24 


JEP 


Dg       _J-i6     17-19      0^i-i9     ~n  oSi"251         27-34         38-40 

Ds  -Z  J  *\J  -^/'i-4       '76-8  9.   °n-i3     14-26      ■io         256-26.3  35   '36.       41. 


JEP  E  5-71 


Dg  -043-46  ~n  1-68-10  9-13 

Ds  -^O         47-57   '58-68  zVi-28   '29         J1^     '7  J  11-20         J  *■  1-6    7.  '16-22     24-29.30 

JEP  E  14.        E  23 

Dg  1  O  J  -2  7  5  /I        I(/r  4 

Ds  0^1-43  44-47  E  O01-20  '26-5  6-25   '26-29  o4    16    "2.5a  6r    "10-12 

JEP  P  48-52  ia   ic         56  7-9 


142  PROPHETIC    ELEMENT    IN    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

APPENDIX  D— Continued. 

J  2-30  c     46-5068-90        12   136-14   17   i8ar  c  19-21 

E    fricU,,-,     T  1.  10-na  1       364a       567  13a         15.  186  22-240 

DsJOSilUa    1    3-6  '7.  9  116-18     2  9j_rl 

ps 

J  lacr       5  9-100  nr   13,     170  36/-  6-70       86/-       106-11  i8r 

E    _  -    16  2.     6  12     14  .    16-30  4.  20 

Ds  ^246  3  4^7         106  176  4 10  9-100        i2r  14  21-24 

Ps  40     8  15.  76-80  13  15-17   19 

J         2.  9        13-15  2.     70     10-120         14.?-  166-170  "6     200  c  21         25.  2-26r 

E     -  £-14-676-9         126-13     16a  206    22-24/  _ 

Ds  Ji4  '5  6-8  O  18  27  / 

Ps  IO-I2  19  I 

J         lar       26-80  9-11  14-17   19-23?-     25       29                      4.66-7                  116-14   156         166  d 

E    0                                 12  13        18           24T  26                         _^  3  60     8-90       no         150        160  c 

Ds  o     16-20         86  27.  30-35       V                   96-10 

Ps  1.                                             15c           17-21 

J     226-23  26.7-     lar  c  2.  56-60  c  7a  9  106  I2r-i4  16-24?-  26.        14-9 

E       220  16     4-50       6bd         100     11 

Ds  9  24.  i(J  76-8  15  2528-43     i  i  2.     10-23     i-i-24 

Ps 

J  I       7        13  14-19       63  1-3        10 

E  /C 

ds  13  2-68-12  i4r  J4  6-15    15  I" 

Ps  I5-2IO  '2l6-22  23-32  '33         1-5  I-I2   13     20-62  4-8  '9 

J  n-18  47 

gsI7  T  g '2-6, '8-100  IQ  2Q 

Ps  ia     16-2  3.   '5.  789.  1       '7  '106   11-28  1-46  48-51  1-3   '4  5,-9 

J 

Ds2I  43_4S     22^  °7a  -6_8  23^6     24  I3         31 

Ps  1-10     11  12-42  0-34 


BS1505.8.H29  t    ^ 

The  prophetic  element  in  the  Old 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1    1012  00028  8110 


DATE  DUE 

1lt^tt,"jOTi6i>il9n 

mum 

WML'' 

|M 

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